EMBRACING THE DIGITAL AGE: THE IMPACT OF PROACTIVITY AND BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS ON EMPLOYEE DEVELOPMENT Jure Andolšek School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia jure.ando@gmail.com Armin Salki ć School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia arminsalko45@gmail.com Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 53 ness to experience, agreeableness, extraversion, and conscien ti ousness (O’Connor, 2002). The five ‐ factor model of personality traits, ini ti ally proposed by McCrae and Costa (1986), provides a basis for un ‐ derstanding individual di fferences in personality. However, personality traits are subject to change over ti me as individuals develop and age, with traits becoming more stable during middle age and within specific work environments (Cobb ‐Clark & Schurer, 2012). Judge et al. (2006) showed that the con ‐ stancy of the Big Five personality traits varies in el ‐ derly individuals, as does their impact on career advancement. 1 Introduc ti on Personality refers to an individual’s enduring pa tt erns of behavior and intrapersonal processes that originate within the person (Burger, 2014). Re ‐ search emphasizes that individuals exhibit consis ‐ tent pa tt erns of behavior across various contexts (Davis, Smitherman, & Baskin, 2013). Personality comprises mul ti ple traits that collec ti vely shape an individual’s behavior, with certain traits dis ti nguish ‐ ing one personality from another (Ca tt ell, 1946). Al ‐ though a rela ti vely small number of personality traits are studied to explain individual behavior, the most important traits include neuro ti cism, open ‐ Personality traits are crucial to understanding an individual’s behavior, and the Big Five personality traits provide insight into the five core traits that underlie this behavior. A be tt er understanding of an individual’s Big Five personality traits can aid in iden ti fying their connec ti on with proac ti vity, which, in turn, has a posi ti ve impact on employee devel ‐ opment within a company. This ar ti cle explores the link between the Big Five personality traits and proac ti vity, and their combined e ffect on employee development. Our study emphasizes the significance of distributed work and high ‐ lights the posi ti ve link between four of the Big Five personality traits (i.e., openness, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscien ti ousness) and proac ti vity. Our research draws upon theore ti cal concepts and prac ti cal case analyses of larger companies, demonstra ti ng the favorable rela ti onship among the Big Five personality traits, proac ti vity, and employee development. This study’s findings underscore the significance of a ffording adequate opportuni ti es for employee de ‐ velopment, and highlight the posi ti ve impact of distributed work on s ti mula ti ng employee development. Our study’s results are per ti nent to researchers conduc ti ng further research on this topic, and we recommend that companies in ‐ vest resources in providing training to their workforce on proac ti ve behavior, which can lead to improved organiza ti onal performance and foster individual development within the company. Keywords: digital age, proac ti vity, big five personality traits, employee development, case study Abstract Vol. 12, No. 1, 53 ‐71 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2023.v12n01a04 DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 53 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 54 Jure Andolšek, Armin Salki ć: Embracing the Digital Age: The Impact of Proac ti vity and Big Five Personality Traits on Employee Development Proac ti vity is another personality trait that is considered to be significant, par ti cularly due to its associa ti on with career success and its high value to employers (Ramus, 2001). Unlike the Big Five per ‐ sonality traits, proac ti vity is more malleable, and can be acquired through organiza ti onal learning, making it a key trait in employee development. It is defined as the ini ti a ti on and crea ti on of change by assuming control over a given situa ti on (Crant, 2000). Individuals with high levels of proac ti vity are be tt er able to adapt to the organiza ti onal environ ‐ ment, socialize e ffec ti vely with other employees, and increase task success. Proac ti ve individuals can take advantage of an enriched workplace design and an ti cipate and prepare for changes, leading to op ti ‐ mal outcomes with appropriate support (Lamovšek, Černe, Radevi ć, & Boži č, 2022). Bateman and Crant (1993) introduced the concept of proac ti ve person ‐ ality in organiza ti onal behavior research, posi ti ng that it is a desirable trait that mo ti vates individuals to take ac ti ons to overcome situa ti onal constraints. Within the current developmental context, it is im ‐ pera ti ve that employees possess proac ti vity (Dachner, Ellingson, Noe, & Saxton, 2021) and de ‐ velop high levels of openness to experience and ex ‐ traversion, among the Big Five personality traits, to achieve op ti mal development within an organiza ‐ ti on (Antoncic, Antoncic, Grum, & Ruzzier, 2018). Understanding the influence of the Big Five person ‐ ality traits and proac ti vity on employee develop ‐ ment is cri ti cal for organiza ti ons seeking to enhance their human capital. The Big Five personality traits are considered to be a fundamental framework for understanding personality di fferences, and they have been linked to a range of important work out ‐ comes. By understanding how di fferent personality traits impact employee development, organiza ti ons can tailor their training and development programs to meet the unique needs and characteris ti cs of their employees (Major, Turner, & Fletcher, 2006). The integra ti on of distributed work in a digital context has given rise to a diverse range of opportu ‐ ni ti es and challenges for employee development. The use of informa ti on telecommunica ti on technologies (ICT) has enabled new distributed work arrange ‐ ments, thereby allowing employees to work remotely, and the implementa ti on of digital technologies has enabled the crea ti on of more e ffec ti ve and flexible work arrangements (Lamovšek & Černe, 2023). How ‐ ever, the trend toward agile opera ti ons and low hier ‐ archies may necessitate that employees assume more significant responsibility for their own learning and development, highligh ti ng the importance of self ‐di ‐ rectedness in employee development (Lemme tt y & Collin, 2020). Addi ti onally, given the recent transfor ‐ ma ti ons in the digital context, emphasizing the impor ‐ tance of distributed work, in conjunc ti on with the aforemen ti oned personality traits, is crucial for achieving op ti mal results (Sousa & Rocha, 2019). An examina ti on of the available research pa ‐ pers on three crucial concepts, namely the Big Five personality traits, proac ti vity, and employee devel ‐ opment, reveals numerous theore ti cal and prac ti cal implica ti ons. However, a major research gap ob ‐ served in the literature is the absence of a compre ‐ hensive model that links and explores the interrela ti onships between the aforemen ti oned key concepts. Moreover, most authors concentrated on the theore ti cal aspects of the key concepts, without delving into their applica ti on in the business prac ‐ ti ces of large corpora ti ons. As a result, it is challeng ‐ ing to apply the exis ti ng analyses and findings to concrete business prac ti ces, because most authors do not consider digitaliza ti on, which con ti nuously transforms both work and the business environ ‐ ment. Thus, the digitaliza ti on of work environments must be regarded as a large ‐scale organiza ti onal change that has various implica ti ons for employee development (Ostemeier & Strobel, 2022). The ex ‐ is ti ng literature and research do not establish a di ‐ rect link among all three constructs and their prac ti cal implica ti ons within the context of a dis ‐ tributed work environment. Instead, they concen ‐ trate on examining the individual rela ti onships between each construct. The contemporary workplace has undergone several transforma ti ons that have resulted in a shi ft toward more employee ‐driven human capital devel ‐ opment prac ti ces. This has led to a significant change in the types of ac ti vi ti es employees engage in for employee development. Employees increas ‐ ingly par ti cipate in informal and unstructured ac ti v ‐ i ti es that emphasize learner proac ti vity, autonomy, and interac ti ons. However, classical employee de ‐ velopment theories s ti ll follow a tradi ti onal ap ‐ proach that limits the understanding of how DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 54 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 55 employee development happens today, because it places the responsibility for development solely on the employer and an instructor who carries out structured ac ti vi ti es. To be tt er align with modern employee development methods, scholars have proposed that development is a shared responsibil ‐ ity between employers and employees, in which proac ti vity is of significant importance (Dachner et al., 2021). Nonetheless, current research and theo ‐ ries on proac ti ve employee development largely have overlooked the impact of large ‐scale changes in an organiza ti on’s environment on an employee’s mo ti va ti on to par ti cipate in proac ti ve learning pro ‐ grams (Ostemeier & Strobel 2022). The Big Five personality traits and proac ti vity are crucial individual characteris ti cs for employee development. Thus, we propose a contemporary theore ti cal framework for employee development that highlights the ac ti ve role of employees in ac ‐ quiring new skills and knowledge. Our theore ti cal model emphasizes an employee ‐led approach char ‐ acterized by proac ti ve behavior, wherein employees ac ti vely create opportuni ti es for professional growth and take accountability for their career ad ‐ vancement (Dachner et al., 2021). To comprehen ‐ sively understand the evolu ti on of employee development prac ti ces over ti me, we find the em ‐ ployee‐led approach to be a valuable tool. We con ‐ sidered Noe’s classifica ti on of employee ‐driven development programs implemented by organiza ‐ ti ons worldwide (Dachner et al., 2021). To demonstrate the significance of each funda ‐ mental concept to organiza ti ons, we present mul ti ‐ ple case studies of large corpora ti ons that e ffec ti vely implement our theories into prac ti cal strategies within authen ti c work environments. The case stud ‐ ies serve to illustrate the proposed proposi ti ons and establish cohesive integra ti on among the concepts. 2 Theore ti cal Background 2.1 Employee Development According to McCauley and Hezle tt (2001), em ‐ ployee development pertains to the augmenta ti on of an individual’s ability to perform their current or fu ‐ ture job responsibili ti es e ffec ti vely within their work organiza ti on. This entails an itera ti ve interven ti on by the organiza ti on to facilitate or directly enhance the job ‐relevant knowledge, skills, and abili ti es of its workforce. A broader approach to employee devel ‐ opment, as proposed by Dachner et al. (2021), en ‐ compasses an ongoing and con ti nuous process that may comprise voluntary or mandatory ac ti vi ti es and formal or informal training, and may be related to one’s present job or long ‐term personal e fficacy, un ‐ dertaken during and/or outside of work hours. In a related vein, Kaše and Svetlik (2021) associated em ‐ ployee development with the acquisi ti on of compe ‐ tencies that enable individuals to execute their future job roles e ffec ti vely, which may be dissimilar from the present workplace requirements. In contemporary ti mes, amid the prevalence of a knowledge‐based society, there is a growing em ‐ phasis on employee development across various do ‐ mains of human resource management (HRM). Concurrently, organiza ti ons ac ti vely are seeking e ffec ‐ ti ve schemes to cul ti vate the skills of their workforce with the objec ti ve of enhancing their occupa ti onal proficiency. In addi ti on to enhancing the adaptability and compe titi veness of the organiza ti on, employee development also can have favorable e ffects on its reputa ti on, augment the capacity to a tt ract prospec ‐ ti ve talented employees, and foster employee reten ‐ ti on by providing opportuni ti es to fulfill career aspira ti ons (Kaše & Svetlik, 2021). Within the literature review, several commonly used concepts for the development of new employ ‐ ees can be iden ti fied. This pertains to all the devel ‐ opmental processes u ti lized to enhance the performance of new employees to desired levels, en ‐ compassing all the formal and informal ac ti vi ti es in which an organiza ti on and employee par ti cipate. The pivotal outcome of new employee development is the cul ti va ti on of an employee with a high level of job performance, alignment with the job environ ‐ ment, and a sense of loyalty toward their new em ‐ ployer (Holton, 1996). Organiza ti ons employ diverse developmental ac ti vi ti es, including formal educa ‐ ti on; job experiences; professional rela ti onships; and personality, skills and abili ti es assessment, to enable professional growth for employees. However, formal educa ti on remains the dominant strategy for em ‐ ployee development in the majority of organiza ti ons. Therefore, employees are a fforded the opportunity to enroll in classroom instruc ti on, online courses, DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 55 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 56 college degree programs, and mentorship ini ti a ti ves, all of which are designed systema ti cally with specific goals, learning objec ti ves, assessment instruments, and expecta ti ons (Dachner et al., 2021). Advanced HRM theory introduces the concept of strategic employee development, which is re ‐ garded as a pivotal element of achieving competiti ve advantage. The dis ti nc ti ve skills and capabili ti es pos ‐ sessed by an organiza ti on and its employees, which are arduous to replicate and imitate by compe ti tors, are deemed to be cri ti cal components of competiti ve advantage. In this regard, strategic employee devel ‐ opment facilitates the development of firm ‐specific knowledge and skills that are in line with the strategic objec ti ves of the organiza ti on. Strategic employee development is characterized by several key features, including the integra ti on of employee development ac ti vi ti es with the organiza ti onal mission and goals, ac ti ve par ti cipa ti on of line managers in designing and delivering employee development programs, the im ‐ plementa ti on of complementary employee develop ‐ ment ac ti vi ti es that reinforce the contribu ti on of employee development, and the alignment of em ‐ ployee development ini ti a ti ves with the organiza ‐ ti onal culture and values (Garavan, 2007). Strategic employee development is an essen ti al component of the four dimensions of core capabil ‐ ity, namely: (1) knowledge and skills, (2) physical and technical systems, (3) managerial systems of de ‐ velopment and educa ti on, and (4) organiza ti onal values and norms. In this context, the implementa ‐ ti on of development programs may result in the genera ti on of dis ti nc ti ve economic values for mul ti ‐ ple stakeholders in an organiza ti on, including em ‐ ployees, management, shareholders, environment, and customers (Garavan, 2007). The development of employees is not solely con ti ngent upon their physical presence in the work ‐ place, because opportuni ti es for growth s ti ll can arise despite distributed work arrangements. In ‐ deed, in certain cases, distributed working can result in more ‐e ffec ti ve development outcomes. The rapid emergence of new technologies and employment opportuni ti es has led to an increased likelihood of distributed work, thereby enabling individuals to pursue development opportuni ti es remotely (Wag ‐ ner, Heil, Hellweg, & Schmedt, 2019). 2.2 Big Five Personality Traits and Employee Development Personality is a complex and widely recognized construct that embodies an individual’s consistent and dis ti nc ti ve pa tt erns of thoughts, feelings, behav ‐ iors, and social interac ti ons, which define their overall character (Kernberg, 2016). The study of personality di fferences has been an enduring pursuit throughout human history; ancient Greek philosopher Hip ‐ pocrates posited four temperaments associated with specific bodily fluids. Modern personality psychology emerged later, and, with advances in technology and access to vast data sets, researchers can now study personality with greater precision and depth than ever before (Montag & Elhai, 2019). Personality arises from an individual’s capacity to experience both internal bodily states and exter ‐ nal environmental percep ti ons, and theories of per ‐ sonality must elucidate its defini ti on, components, organiza ti on, and development across ti me (McCrae & Costa, 2008). Although di fferent psychologists may hold di ffering views on the exact defini ti on of personality, it generally encompasses more than surface ‐level characteris ti cs (Feist, Roberts, & Feist, 2021). According to Kernberg (2016), personality comprises the en ti rety of an individual’s subjec ti ve experiences and behavior pa tt erns, including both conscious and unconscious factors such as concrete and habitual ac ti ons, self ‐percep ti ons, percep ti ons of the world, conscious thoughts, desires and fears, and internal states. In essence, personality cons ti ‐ tutes a persistent set of traits, a tti tudes, emo ti ons, and behaviors that remain stable over ti me and in varying circumstances, cons ti tu ti ng an individual’s unique and recognizable iden ti ty (Boyd & Pen ‐ nebaker, 2017). Conversely, personality traits refer to the rela ‐ ti vely stable and long ‐las ti ng characteris ti cs that dis ‐ ti nc ti vely shape an individual’s personality (Allport & Allport, 1921). These traits play a vital role in de ‐ termining an individual’s behavior, thoughts, and emo ti ons, contribu ti ng to the development of their dis ti nc ti ve personality (Buss, 1989). Personality traits remain an important area of study in the 21st century, because they o ffer insight into the mecha ‐ nisms underlying behavior, cogni ti on, and emo ti on, and can be applied to a range of prac ti cal se tti ngs, Jure Andolšek, Armin Salki ć: Embracing the Digital Age: The Impact of Proac ti vity and Big Five Personality Traits on Employee Development DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 56 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 57 such as the workplace (Montag & Elhai, 2019). They represent consistent pa tt erns of thoughts, emo ‐ ti ons, and behaviors that shape an individual’s unique characteris ti cs (Diener & Lucas, 2023). Trait psychology postulates that individuals di ffer in terms of fundamental trait dimensions that remain stable over ti me and in varying situa ti ons (Diener & Lucas, 2023). Popular understanding of personality traits o ft en suggests that they are immutable and exert a direct influence on an individual’s behavior (Ma tt hews, Deary, & Whiteman, 2003). The Five ‐Factor Model, also known as the Big Five, is the most commonly used model of traits, and encompasses five broad dimensions repre ‐ sented by the acronym OCEAN, which can be parsed further into smaller facets for detailed anal ‐ ysis of an individual’s personality (Hough, Oswald, & Ock, 2015). The Five ‐Factor Model also can be linked to behavioral content primarily through con ‐ scien ti ousness, and secondarily through extraver ‐ sion and agreeableness. Cogni ti ve content can be associated with openness, followed by agreeable ‐ ness and conscien ti ousness, whereas a ffec ti ve con ‐ tent can be linked to neuro ti cism, followed by extraversion and agreeableness (Zilig, Hemenover, & Dienstbier, 2002). The Big Five personality traits have been shown to play a crucial role in the posi ti ve development of employees in an organiza ti on. Kickhuk and Wiesner (1997) found that a high level of extraversion and agreeableness have been highlighted as being par ‐ ti cularly advantageous, and low levels of neuro ti cism also could enhance the development process. Shahreki (2020) arrived at similar results, highlight ‐ ing the significance of agreeableness and addi ti on ‐ ally emphasizing conscien ti ousness as a contribu ti ng factor to successful employee development. In ad ‐ di ti on to pre ‐exis ti ng cogni ti ve impairments, an in ‐ dividual’s openness to experience can serve as an addi ti onal factor influencing their posi ti ve develop ‐ ment within an organiza ti onal context (LePine, Colqui tt , & Erez, 2000). Proposi ti on 1: There is a posi ti ve rela ti onship between the Big Five personality traits (high lev ‐ els of extraversion, agreeableness, openness, and conscien ti ousness, and a low level of neu ‐ ro ti cism) and employee development. 2.3 Big Five Personality Traits, Proac ti vity, and Employee Development In general, employee behavior in the workplace can be categorized into two dis ti nct groups: reac ti ve and proac ti ve. Reac ti ve employees typically wait for instruc ti ons before they take any ac ti on and carry out their tasks with minimal direc ti on. On the other hand, proac ti ve employees are highly mo ti vated and take ini ti a ti ve to iden ti fy opportuni ti es to im ‐ prove processes, share ideas, and enhance their own and others’ performance (Campbell, 2000). Among the array of significant personality traits, proac ti vity also is considered to be crucial. Proac ti vity is a quality that entails the tendency to take proac ti ve measures in one’s approach to tasks, which encompasses crucial elements such as ini ti a ‐ ti ve ‐taking, forward ‐thinking, self ‐regula ti on, and the ability to facilitate change (Parker, Bindl, & Strauss, 2010). It is a cri ti cal component of personal and professional success, and is defined as taking a proac ti ve approach to tasks, rather than simply re ‐ ac ti ng to events (Parker, Bindl, & Strauss, 2010). It encompasses the key aspects of taking ini ti a ti ve, an ti cipa ti ng future situa ti ons, exercising control, and causing change (Grant & Ashford, 2008). Proac ‐ ti vity is not only a desirable quality in employees, but also a cri ti cal skill that employers look for when hiring new sta ff (Parker, Bindl, & Strauss, 2010). An organiza ti on’s success is dependent on having a sig ‐ nificant number of proac ti ve employees, but this requires more than just hiring proac ti ve individuals. A proac ti ve culture must be nurtured within the or ‐ ganiza ti on—a culture that values and celebrates achievement, allows for failure, and fosters collab ‐ ora ti on and innova ti on (Joo & Lim, 2009). The cat ‐ egoriza ti on of proac ti ve behavior as either extra ‐role or in ‐role is subjec ti ve, and can vary based on an individual’s interpreta ti on of their role and responsibili ti es (Parker & Collins, 2008). Extra ‐ role proac ti ve behavior refers to ac ti ons that are outside the scope of one’s formal job responsibili ‐ ti es, whereas in ‐role proac ti ve behavior is within the bounds of one’s o fficial du ti es (Grant, & Ash ‐ ford, 2008). Both forms of proac ti ve behavior can contribute to overall success and can help individ ‐ uals take control of their career and personal de ‐ velopment (Parker & Collins, 2008). DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 57 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 58 The benefits of proac ti vity, including its posi ti ve impact on individuals and organiza ti ons, are well documented. Whereas proac ti ve individuals may re ‐ sort to using various inappropriate methods to achieve their goals, resul ti ng in nega ti ve e ffects on employee morale (Parker, Wang, & Liao, 2019), the posi ti ve impacts of proac ti vity are noteworthy. These include enhanced job sa ti sfac ti on, be tt er ti me management, improved problem ‐solving abili ti es, and increased success. Similarly, organiza ti ons that have a substan ti al propor ti on of proac ti ve individu ‐ als may experience posi ti ve outcomes, especially in terms of high work performance and innova ti on, which are the most significant benefits achieved by such organiza ti ons (Ghitulescu, 2018). The Big Five personality traits and proac ti vity are two areas of study that have been researched widely in the field of psychology. Proac ti vity can be seen as a form of behavior that is influenced by an individual’s personality traits. Personality traits, such as conscien ti ousness and openness, have been shown to posi ti vely impact an individual’s level of proac ti vity. This is because conscien ti ous individuals are more likely to take ini ti a ti ve, and are focused on achieving their goals, and open individuals are more likely to be forward ‐thinking and have a greater propensity to seek out new opportuni ti es (Thomas, Whitman, & Viswesvaran, 2010). In contrast, indi ‐ viduals with high levels of neuro ti cism may be less proac ti ve due to their tendency to be anxious and cau ti ous (Miller & Lynam, 2006). The rela ti onship between personality traits and proac ti vity can help individuals to understand themselves be tt er, and can help organiza ti ons to select and develop em ‐ ployees who have a higher propensity for proac ti vity (Thomas, Whitman, & Viswesvaran, 2010). The ongoing digital transforma ti on has led to a shi ft in the required skill set for organiza ti onal suc ‐ cess. In light of this, it has become impera ti ve for employees to engage in proac ti ve skills development in order to remain compe titi ve and relevant in the workforce. The rapid advancements in digital tech ‐ nology and its integra ti on into the modern work ‐ place have challenged conven ti onal perspec ti ves on human crea ti vity (Miah & Omar, 2012). This has elicited numerous inquiries from both academic re ‐ searchers and industry professionals on how to fos ‐ ter crea ti vity among employees in distributed work environments (Cai, Khapova, Bossink, Lysova, & Yuan, 2020). The no ti on of employee proac ti vity in skills development emphasizes the need for individ ‐ uals to take the ini ti a ti ve and responsibility for their own professional growth and career advancement. This proac ti ve approach to skills development is cri ti ‐ cal for employees to stay ahead of the changing de ‐ mands of the digital landscape and to secure their future employability (Ostmeier & Strobel, 2022). Numerous organiza ti ons have implemented new work arrangements, guided by design interven ‐ ti ons and the implementa ti on of ac ti vity ‐based workplaces. The an ti cipated outcomes of these changes are substan ti al, including more ‐e fficient u ti liza ti on of space and resources, enhanced job sat ‐ isfac ti on, posi ti ve client image, improved perfor ‐ mance, and reduced costs (Vos & van der Voordt, 2001). Although it is recognized widely that an or ‐ ganiza ti on’s success is influenced by various factors such as its overall strategy and resource availability (Nasemm, Sheikh, & Malik, 2011), it is equally im ‐ portant to acknowledge the crucial roles of proac ‐ ti vity and innova ti on as outcomes resul ti ng from the collec ti ve thoughts and ac ti ons of individual em ‐ ployees. The ability of employees to generate cre ‐ a ti ve and innova ti ve ideas during their daily work rou ti nes depends not only on their personal at ‐ tributes, but also on their percep ti ons of the work ‐ place environment (Amabile, Schatzel, Moneta, & Kramer, 2004). Organiza ti ons that foster and sup ‐ port proac ti vity are more likely to have a mo ti vated and engaged workforce commi tt ed to con ti nuous improvement and the achievement of organiza ‐ ti onal goals (Ramus, 2001). E ffec ti ve employee development is cri ti cal for organiza ti onal success, and requires an understand ‐ ing of the individual employee’s proac ti vity and per ‐ sonality traits. When developing employees, it is important to recognize the unique combina ti on of these factors and how they shape an employee’s ap ‐ proach to their work (Turner, 2003). In this way, em ‐ ployee development strategies can be tailored to the individual, enabling them to achieve their full poten ti al and contribute to organiza ti onal goals. Un ‐ derstanding the complex interplay of proac ti vity and personality traits in employee development is a crit ‐ ical element of e ffec ti ve management prac ti ces (Crant, 2000). Jure Andolšek, Armin Salki ć: Embracing the Digital Age: The Impact of Proac ti vity and Big Five Personality Traits on Employee Development DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 58 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 59 Proposi ti on 2: The Big Five personality traits (high levels of extraversion, agreeableness, openness and conscien ti ousness, and a low level of neuro ti cism) are posi ti vely related to proac ti vity, which, in turn, is posi ti vely associ ‐ ated with employee development. 2.4 Distributed Work Se tti ngs The impact of technological advancements on work design for both employees and organiza ti ons has been significant (Schwarzmuler et al., 2018). Contemporary workplaces have transi ti oned from tradi ti onal to digitalized environments, with a focus on ICT rather than physical infrastructure (Richter et al., 2018). Cloud services, online pla tf orms, and mo ‐ bile devices are common tools used by employees for constant communica ti on and connec ti vity with colleagues and stakeholders from di fferent organi ‐ za ti ons (Schwarzmuler et al., 2018). The concept of distributed work arises when employees are able to remain connected to their workplace and co ‐work ‐ ers on a con ti nuous basis. Lamovšek and Černe (2023) highlighted that distributed work requires in ‐ dividuals to collaborate with team members via computer ‐mediated communica ti on technology, both for planning and for coordina ti on, as well as in ‐ formal and social interac ti ons. Under these condi ‐ ti ons, employees must hone new human capabili ti es, including prompt problem ‐solving, con ‐ ti nuous learning, and collabora ti ve problem ‐solving (Richter et al., 2018). The no ti on of work se tti ngs, also known as dis ‐ tributed work, typically is defined in terms of its spa ‐ ti al dimensions, as per Schwarzmuler et al.’s defini ti on, which characterizes it as “working out ‐ side the conven ti onal workplace and communicat ‐ ing with it by way of telecommunica ti ons or computer ‐based technology” (Schwarzmuler et al., 2018, p. 177). In addi ti on to spa ti al considera ti ons, temporal flexibility is another vital aspect of this work design, because employees may connect to the workplace and perform their du ti es outside of customary working hours. Consequently, the advent of disrup ti ve technologies such as mobile comput ‐ ing and virtual reality significantly has eroded the tradi ti onal boundaries between online and o ffline work. For example, telepresence systems have en ‐ abled employees from diverse geographical loca ‐ ti ons to a tt end the same mee ti ng and par ti cipate ac ti vely, irrespec ti ve of physical or temporal con ‐ straints (Schwarzmuler et al., 2018). The process of digital transforma ti on is signifi ‐ cantly compelling organiza ti ons to update the com ‐ petencies of their employees regularly to sustain their success. In line with this trend, informal and proac ti ve modes of work ‐related learning have gar ‐ nered increased significance, because employees are required to take a proac ti ve approach to man ‐ aging their careers in contemporary ti mes. Conse ‐ quently, proac ti ve skills development is defined as “the self ‐ini ti ated, future ‐ and change ‐oriented ac ‐ quisi ti on of knowledge and skills that individuals may need to master future job tasks” (Ostmeier, & Strobel, 2022). Based on empirical research conducted by Dachner et al. (2021), approximately 35% of em ‐ ployee development hours occur in the absence of an instructor. Therefore, companies must iden ti fy the educa ti onal requirements of their employees and provide them with access to suitable educa ‐ ti onal programs, and employee proac ti vity plays a crucial role in acquiring addi ti onal knowledge and skills. Employees are expected to take on greater re ‐ sponsibility for developing their current competen ‐ cies and acquiring new competencies to fulfill current job demands, assume leadership posi ti ons, and ensure their own employability. This employee ‐ driven approach is linked directly to proac ti ve em ‐ ployee behavior, wherein employees create opportuni ti es for growth and hold themselves ac ‐ countable for their career progression, rather than wai ti ng passively for opportuni ti es to be presented to them (Dachner et al., 2021). Miko łajczyk (2021) reported on a research study conducted by The Associa ti on for Talent De ‐ velopment in August 2020, which examined em ‐ ployee development programs in distributed work se tti ngs. The results showed that 99% of the orga ‐ niza ti ons surveyed had implemented e ‐learning methods for their employees. Furthermore, all the parti cipa ti ng organiza ti ons in the study planned to o ffer e ‐learning programs as part of their human re ‐ source development (HRD) ini ti a ti ves in the next few years. DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 59 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 60 Ostmeier and Strobel (2022) contended that proac ti ve skills development is associated posi ti vely with distributed work design. In accordance with their findings, distributed work se tti ngs, as well as digital tools and programs implemented by organi ‐ za ti ons, provide employees with access to diverse informa ti on resources and skills development pro ‐ grams. Thus, distributed work is perceived by em ‐ ployees as an opportunity to augment their knowledge and engage in proac ti ve skills develop ‐ ment ini ti a ti ves. Proposi ti on 3: Distributed work se tti ngs are con ‐ ducive to proac ti vity, and hence to employee de ‐ velopment. 3 Case Studies 3.1 Employee Development Programs That Are Crea ti ng Digital Future Companies constantly are seeking appropriate programs to develop their employees’ skills and knowledge, and digitalization and technological progress have provided numerous opportunities for employees to improve their knowledge any ‐ where and at any time. Digitalization has had a sig ‐ nificant impact on employee development in all organizations, from micro companies to large cor ‐ porations. Most educational activities in compa ‐ nies now are carried out digitally, using ICT and various intermediaries. The share of classic educa ‐ tional programs that occur “in the classroom” is significantly smaller; courses do not provide the flexibility for employees, and require a consider ‐ able amount of time and money (Dachner et al., 2021). Dachner et al. (2021) introduced Noe’s classifi ‐ ca ti ons of employee ‐driven development methods, namely formal courses and programs, assessment, professional rela ti onships, and on ‐the ‐job ‐experi ‐ ence. Each of these categories has a brief theore ti cal background that is presented in the following sub ‐ sec ti ons, along with prac ti cal cases of large compa ‐ nies that have implemented these methods. Although the category of professional rela ti onships are not covered, we explore the theore ti cal founda ‐ ti ons and real ‐world applica ti ons of the other three categories. 3.1.1 Formal Courses and Programs Tradi ti onal “in the classroom” educa ti onal pro ‐ grams are o ffered primarily by academic ins ti tu ‐ ti ons; companies have turned to online pla tf orms to provide their employees with formal educa ti onal courses. Such programs serve as autonomous de ‐ velopment ac ti vi ti es, helping employees to enhance their knowledge, skills, and capabili ti es. To this end, companies o ffer access to massive open online courses (MOOCs) that cover a wide range of topics, including computer science, psychology, physiology, health policy, and similar subjects. These programs provide ti me and space flexibility while s ti ll main ‐ taining high quality because they are developed in collabora ti on with academic ins ti tu ti ons. Notable examples include the MOOCs o ffered by Georgia Tech, Udacity, and AT&T, which provide a Master’s degree in computer science. This was the first online Master of Science in Computer Science, and it has gained the a tt en ti on of companies worldwide. On ‐ line learning environments also include webinars, which are lectures, workshops, live seminars, and presenta ti ons delivered online. Webinars can be de ‐ livered to a large number of par ti cipants spread out geographically, and o ffer real‐ti me ques ti on ‐and ‐an ‐ swer sessions, discussion, and immediate feedback. There also is the possibility to record content for re ‐ view or sharing with others (Dachner et al., 2021). In contemporary ti mes, online courses increas ‐ ingly have been adopted by major corpora ti ons for the professional development of their employees. Chipotle, an American restaurant chain, is an exam ‐ ple of such investments made in employee devel ‐ opment. Prior to their investment in employee development, Chipotle was grappling with the issue of high employee turnover rates. In 2018, the com ‐ pany opted to allocate more than one ‐third of its an ti cipated savings from tax law changes toward the be tt erment of its workforce. Subsequently, in re ‐ sponse to the COVID ‐19 pandemic, Chipotle made further improvements to its employee development plans by introducing over 5,500 remote courses, which focused on topics encompassing business, technology, and wellness. This ini ti a ti ve was imple ‐ mented as part of a comprehensive strategy de ‐ signed to promote a merit ‐based approach to career growth and development. Jure Andolšek, Armin Salki ć: Embracing the Digital Age: The Impact of Proac ti vity and Big Five Personality Traits on Employee Development DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 60 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 61 The development program was accompanied by the forma ti on of an employee resource group en ‐ ti tled the United Network of Influencers Furthering Inclusion and Ethnic Diversity. The group was estab ‐ lished to promote a workplace environment free of discrimina ti on and inequality. Furthermore, the pro ‐ gram featured several components, such as mentor ‐ ship programs targeted toward minority employees, quarterly training sessions aimed at promo ti ng workplace diversity and inclusion, and virtual roundtable events featuring dis ti nguished speakers and panels. These components were designed to promote diversity and inclusion in the workplace, and to enhance the quality of work ‐life for employ ‐ ees (D’sa ‐Wilson, 2022). According to the Chief Diversity, Inclusion and People O fficer, Marissa Andrad, Chipotle’s e fforts were driven by the need to create a conducive en ‐ vironment for their employees to connect and pur ‐ sue their passions with like ‐minded co ‐workers, even in a virtual se tti ng (D’sa ‐Wilson, 2022). Several companies have established their own online learning academies to address the challenges posed by the ever ‐evolving work environment. Urban Company, India’s most extensive home services mar ‐ ketplace, is one such example. The company’s plat ‐ form provides customers with the ability to book a diverse range of services, such as plumbing, appli ‐ ance repair, beauty services, and personal training. With the advent of the coronavirus pandemic, Urban Company was required to radically overhaul its oper ‐ a ti ons, a task that proved to be immensely challeng ‐ ing for an organiza ti on with 1,300 o ffice ‐based employees. To address these challenges, Urban Com ‐ pany turned to innova ti ve solu ti ons and crea ti ve workflows. As a result, the company’s marke ti ng team was able to reduce crea ti ve produc ti on costs by a staggering 85% (Wilson, 2022). Urban Company’s ambi ti ous approach ex ‐ tended to its learning and development e fforts, be ‐ cause the company recognized the importance of con ti nuous employee skill development. In re ‐ sponse, the company launched its own learning and development pla tf orm, the Urban Academy, which provides programs covering an array of topics, in ‐ cluding Excel skills (basic, intermediate, and expert), leadership, feedback provision, problem ‐solving, and SQL. As interest in the pla tf orm grew among in ‐ dividual teams and departments, Urban Company bolstered the program by hiring 25 new instructors. Addi ti onally, the company augmented its internal knowledge with a regular series of 2 ‐hour talks fea ‐ turing influen ti al leaders from various industries (D’sa ‐Wilson, 2022). 3.1.2 Assessments Dachner et al. (2021) suggested that assessments can be e ffec ti ve for autonomous employee develop ‐ ment, allowing individuals to upgrade their skills and iden ti fy opportuni ti es for further development. Ac ‐ credited ins ti tu ti ons and professional socie ti es o ffer exams to assess candidates’ understanding, skills, knowledge, and capabili ti es, and those who meet the standards receive cer ti fica ti on as proof of their exper ‐ ti se. Examples include the Human Resource Cer ti fica ‐ ti on Ins ti tute (HRCI) for HR professionals, and the Chartered Financial Analyst cer ti ficate from the CFA Ins ti tute for financial professionals. Many companies have embraced an approach that enables their employees to acquire formal ed ‐ uca ti on, cer ti fica ti ons, or skills ‐development pro ‐ grams to enhance their skills and knowledge. For example, Amazon has introduced the Amazon Ca ‐ reer Choice program, which is available to associates who have been with the company for at least 90 days. Through this ini ti a ti ve, Amazon covers the costs of various educa ti onal programs, including bachelor’s or associate’s degrees, job training for in ‐ demand fields, and cer ti fica ti on for General Educa ‐ ti onal Development (GED) or English as a Second Language (ESL). Similarly, Starbucks has developed the Starbucks College Achievement Plan, which as ‐ sists employees in paying for college costs through scholarships and financial aid. Employees are re ‐ quired to fill out federal student aid applica ti ons and accept financial aid from the school. Starbucks pays for the remaining tui ti on costs for a first ‐ti me bach ‐ elor’s degree through Arizona State University’s on ‐ line program (Marquit, 2022). The Walt Disney Company has established the Disney Aspire program, which enables full ‐ti me and part ‐ti me employees to enroll in bachelor’s or mas ‐ ter’s degree programs. Employees must a tt end one DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 61 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 62 of the partner schools, and Disney covers the costs of textbooks. In contrast, Chipotle Company o ffers its employees access to online classes from partner ins ti tu ti ons and tui ti on reimbursement of up to $5,250 each year if they opt for a non ‐partner ins ti ‐ tu ti on. To qualify for the program, employees must have worked at least 15 hours/week for 4 months (Marquit, 2022). 3.1.3 On ‐the ‐Job Experience One example of an employee ‐driven on ‐the ‐job experience approach is the job cra ft ing strategy, which involves empowering employees to modify their work situa ti on to achieve a be tt er alignment of employee traits and job characteris ti cs. This bot ‐ tom ‐up approach to job design allows employees to shape their work experiences by altering the behav ‐ ioral, rela ti onal, and cogni ti ve boundaries of their jobs. Proponents of this employee development strategy highlight the significance of job design, and two primary designs are suggested: task emphasiz ‐ ing, and job expanding. Task emphasizing entails employees changing the nature of a task or devo ti ng more ti me and a tt en ti on to it, whereas job expand ‐ ing involves selec ti ng new, unfamiliar tasks that o ft en require the use of trial and error to complete (Dachner et al., 2021). These approaches include tradi ti onal on ‐the ‐ job training methods such as job rota ti on, mentor ‐ ing programs, co ‐worker training, internships, job shadowing, prac ti ce simula ti ons, delega ti on, and coaching. To inves ti gate how large companies im ‐ plement on ‐the‐job training in the context of digital and remote work design, with mentoring programs serving as interes ti ng examples, this paper explores this topic further (Small, 2021; Dachner et al., 2021). Cooley, a global law firm opera ti ng across 18 of ‐ fices in the US, Asia and Europe with more than 1,400 lawyers and more than 3,000 personnel, has implemented a virtual mentoring program known as the Cooley Academy Mentoring Program (CAMP). The program is aimed at improving the onboarding process for new employees through pairing them with experienced individuals, thereby facilita ti ng more ‐e fficient assimila ti on into the company. The mentors in the program are responsible for teach ‐ ing, training, and suppor ti ng new hires, preparing them for more ‐complex work. Cooley leverages re ‐ por ti ng tools to monitor the progress of mentoring rela ti onships, and gathers feedback to enhance the e ffec ti veness of the program (D’sa ‐Wilson, 2022). Novar ti s, a mul ti na ti onal pharmaceu ti cal com ‐ pany with more than 100,000 employees, encoun ‐ tered challenges related to connec ti ng its employees with colleagues from di fferent regions and func ti onal areas. To address this issue, the company launched a mentoring program with a focus on cross ‐func ti onal and cross ‐country pairings. Mentee–mentor pairs were generated from Novar ti s’ talent marketplace based on relevant exper ti se. The program aims to provide associates with the opportunity to establish new networks, collaborate with colleagues they may not have had a chance to meet otherwise, and en ‐ hance their skills and knowledge. The en ti re program, including communica ti on, mentoring, and training, is delivered online via various communica ti on channels and applica ti ons, leveraging ICT, smart technology, and digital channels. Currently, more than 460 asso ‐ ciates have been paired with a mentor within Novar ‐ ti s, and 75% of these mentoring assignments involve cross‐func ti onal connec ti ons. The program also en ‐ ables proac ti ve employees to engage in mentoring on their own ini ti a ti ve (Schreiber ‐Shearer, 2023). Deloi tt e has developed a noteworthy virtual mentoring program known as D ‐180, which forms an integral part of the company’s community re ‐ sponse e fforts to COVID ‐19. The program is aimed at university graduates who are in their first few years in the workforce, as well as high school and college students across the Middle East and Cyprus, and seeks to provide them with mentoring and ex ‐ posure to real work environments through Deloi tt e volunteer professionals. The main objec ti ve of this ini ti a ti ve is to equip young talents with the skills and knowledge required in the new economy. Deloi tt e mentors are paired with mentees and o ffer support through virtual mee ti ngs to aid their skills ‐building and employability journeys. Deloi tt e mentors pro ‐ vide mentees with exposure to the world of work, assist them in se tti ng and pursuing educa ti onal jour ‐ neys or entering the job market, and serve as sound ‐ ing boards to mentees. This ini ti a ti ve o ffers mutual benefits to both par ti es. Young talents are given the opportunity to be mentored by Deloi tt e profession ‐ Jure Andolšek, Armin Salki ć: Embracing the Digital Age: The Impact of Proac ti vity and Big Five Personality Traits on Employee Development DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 62 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 63 als and learn from their experiences, gain insight into work and employee development, be part of a journey of explora ti on of the world of work through a series of mutually beneficial virtual mee ti ngs, and be challenged to improve their professional and per ‐ sonal skills. Deloi tt e has the opportunity to a tt ract young, mo ti vated talent and enhance their em ‐ ployer brand (Deloi tt e, 2023). 3.2 Most Important Personality Traits In the Digital Age The prevailing no ti on regarding 21st century skills suggests that students must a tt ain proficiency in the STEM subjects—science, technology, engi ‐ neering, and math—and acquire programming skills, given the high demand for these skills in the job market (Baran, Canbazoglu Bilici, Mesutoglu, & Ocak, 2019). However, this representa ti on is a gross oversimplifica ti on of the knowledge and skills re ‐ quired for students to thrive. Despite its origin as a company that ini ti ally assumed that only techno ‐ logically proficient individuals could comprehend technology, Google has discovered that so ft skills, rather than STEM skills, are paramount for success (Miles, 2022). In 2013, Google conducted a study named Pro ‐ ject Oxygen, which scru ti nized its employment, ter ‐ mina tion, and promo tion data since its establishment in 1998. The research determined that among the eight most essen ti al a tt ributes of Google’s high ‐performing employees, STEM profi ‐ ciency ranked at the bo tt om (Miles, 2022). In con ‐ trast, the seven leading indicators of success at Google were so ft skills, which encompassed being an e ffec ti ve coach, being adept at communica ti ng and a tt en ti ve listening, exhibi ti ng insight into others (including their varying values and perspec ti ves), ex ‐ pressing empathy toward and being suppor ti ve of colleagues, possessing strong cri ti cal thinking and problem ‐solving skills, and demonstra ti ng the ability to create connec ti ons across intricate concepts (Strauss, 2017). The significance of so ft skills in high ‐tech set ‐ ti ngs is underscored by Google’s recent inves ti ga ‐ ti on, Project Aristotle. This inquiry examined informa ti on on innova ti ve and produc ti ve teams, and revealed that the most excep ti onal teams at Google manifest a spectrum of so ft skills, such as impar ti ality, munificence, inquisi ti veness regarding the concepts of colleagues, empathy, and emo ti onal intelligence. Furthermore, emo ti onal safety was found to be the most crucial characteris ti c. To pros ‐ per, every member of the team must feel self ‐as ‐ sured to voice their opinion and make mistakes, while being confident that they are being heard (Duhigg, 2016). The findings align with the results of previous studies of the characteris ti cs sought by employers in job candidates. A recent survey conducted by the Na ti onal Associa ti on of Colleges and Employers, a non ‐profit organiza ti on comprising both small busi ‐ nesses and large corpora ti ons such as Chevron and IBM, revealed that communica ti on skills were rated among the three most desired quali ti es by re ‐ cruiters (Koncz & Gray, 2022). This highlights the sig ‐ nificance of both interpersonal communica ti on within the workplace and the ability to communi ‐ cate e ffec ti vely the company’s product and vision to external stakeholders. The digital age of the future likely will place a premium on certain personality traits that are well ‐suited to the demands and chal ‐ lenges of the rapidly evolving technological land ‐ scape (Jackson, & Ahuja, 2016). In light of the recent technological advance ‐ ments and innova ti ve research methods, it is ex ‐ pected that the understanding of personality traits will con ti nue to advance and grow in the future. This highlights the importance of staying up ‐to ‐date with current developments and advancements within the field, in order to e ffec ti vely understand and ad ‐ dress the changing needs and expecta ti ons of em ‐ ployers (Montag & Elhai, 2019). Although STEM skills are fundamental in today’s world, technology alone is insu fficient. The inclusion of individuals ed ‐ ucated in the human, cultural, and social aspects, as well as computa ti onal knowledge, also is crucial. Personality traits such as so ft skills, as outlined in Project Oxygen and Project Aristotle, play a vital role in achieving long ‐term success and sa ti sfac ti on in one’s career . By incorpora ti ng a passion for the arts, humani ti es, and social sciences, individuals can pre ‐ pare themselves not only for the workforce but also for the world at large (Balcar, 2023). DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 63 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 64 Jure Andolšek, Armin Salki ć: Embracing the Digital Age: The Impact of Proac ti vity and Big Five Personality Traits on Employee Development 3.3 Encouraging Proac ti ve Behavior In a Digital World Google places a significant emphasis on culti ‐ vating a positive and fulfilling workplace environ ‐ ment for its employees. The company believes that a happy and engaged workforce leads to improved results and outcomes. To achieve this, Google pro ‐ vides its employees with a comprehensive suite of benefits and amenities, including access to gourmet organic cuisine, complimentary dental and health check ‐ups, subsidized massages, in ‐ house nap pods, and more (Main, 2022). This ap ‐ proach to employee happiness and well ‐being has proven to be a successful strategy for Google. As a leading company in its field, known for its compet ‐ itive salaries and distinctive office spaces, Google’s commitment to the well ‐being of its employees has contributed to its prestigious reputation and overall success (Akram, n.d.). Research conducted by LinkedIn supports this perspec ti ve, finding that an excessive workload can contribute to burnout, but also can lead to higher levels of job sa ti sfac ti on. In the study, 71% of em ‐ ployees who reported having an excessive workload were content in their roles, whereas only 62% of those who reported having too li tt le work were sat ‐ isfied with their jobs. These data highlight the im ‐ portance of finding the right balance between work and leisure in order to promote employee happi ‐ ness and engagement (Main, 2022). Google’s strategy involves three key elements (Main, 2022): 1. giving employees more purpose by giving them more work, 2. ge tti ng employees involved in projects outside their direct du ti es, and 3. se tti ng higher goals to help employees reach new heights. The company’s approach helps employees feel a sense of pride and satisfaction in their work, be ‐ come more versatile, and build professional rela ‐ tionships. It also enables employers to better understand their employees’ strengths and iden ‐ tify those who are well ‐suited for a promotion (Main, 2022). Studies have shown that employees are more produc ti ve and crea ti ve in posi ti ve and encouraging environments. For example, Google allows its engi ‐ neers to pursue passion projects during 20% of their working ti me, which results in increased mo ti va ti on and crea ti vity (Akram, n.d.). Google’s investment in its luxurious campus and workplace ameni ti es also supports its employees’ well ‐being, leading to in ‐ creased focus and collabora ti on, ul ti mately improv ‐ ing the bo tt om line (Radford, 2018). However, crea ti ng a proac ti ve culture does not require financial investment. A change in leadership messaging can lead to significant shi ft s in employee behavior. Leaders must communicate that em ‐ ployee input is valued, and that the company is will ‐ ing to pursue new ideas. In a proac ti ve culture, nega ti ve feedback should be avoided in the event of failure; instead, setbacks and failures should be treated as opportuni ti es for learning (Brune tt o, Xerri, & Nelson, 2014). Encouraging brainstorming sessions and involv ‐ ing leaders in open ‐door, cross ‐func ti onal sessions significantly can enhance the performance of teams. The consistent, genuine, and reinforced cultural message must emphasize the importance of seeking new opportuni ti es and improving processes. Em ‐ ployees should be encouraged to ask ques ti ons and iden ti fy areas for improvement, with a focus on en ‐ hancing customer and organiza ti onal sa ti sfac ti on (Argyris, 1994). In conclusion, crea ti ng a proac ti ve culture in the workplace requires a shi ft in leadership messag ‐ ing, a focus on posi ti vity, and a suppor ti ve environ ‐ ment that fosters collabora ti on and innova ti on. By priori ti zing employee well ‐being and encouraging con ti nuous improvement, organiza ti ons can reap the benefits of a mo ti vated and highly produc ti ve workforce (Papagiannidis & Marikyan, 2020). 4 Integra ti ve Conceptual Model A ft er analyzing the theore ti cal framework and findings from the case studies, we formulated an integra ti ve model that e ffec ti vely connects our three key research concepts into a comprehensive and cohesive structure. Our integra ti ve conceptual model provides a deeper understanding of the DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 64 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 65 complex and varied interrela ti onships among the Big Five personality traits, proac ti vity, and em ‐ ployee development by presen ti ng a more thor ‐ ough and interconnected framework. Notably, our model acknowledges the impact of distributed work se tti ngs on these constructs and the conse ‐ quent e ffects on employee development within a digital context. Consistent with our first proposi ti on (Figure 1), our model vividly demonstrates the favorable asso ‐ cia ti on between the Big Five personality traits and employee development. Shareki (2007) suggests that agreeableness and conscien ti ousness are the foremost personality traits required for successful employee development. Furthermore, a survey con ‐ ducted by the Na ti onal Associa ti on of Colleges and Employers found that interpersonal communica ti on was among the three most desirable quali ti es that contribute to successful employee development and high job performance (Koncz & Gray, 2022). Our conceptual model is designed specifically to focus on distributed work environments, in which proac ti vity is deemed to be a crucial personal characteris ti c for employees involved in develop ‐ ment ac ti vi ti es. Ostmeier and Strobel (2022) high ‐ lighted the importance of informal and proac ti ve forms of learning programs, which have gained sig ‐ nificance in the wake of digital transforma ti on and diverse work se tti ngs. Therefore, in line with our second proposi ti on, proac ti vity serves as an addi ‐ ti onal factor that contributes to the employee de ‐ velopment process. To adapt to this trend, companies have modified their employee develop ‐ ment programs accordingly (Ostmeier & Strobel, 2022). For example, the American restaurant chain Chipotle has introduced a variety of employee de ‐ velopment programs that are accessible through online pla tf orms, enabling employees to pursue their interests and engage in preferred programs in ‐ dependently (Wilson, 2022). Consequently, proac ‐ ti vity represents an extended and developed dimension of personality traits, and forms the sec ‐ ond integral part of our model. Employees with high levels of proac ti vity, in rela ti on to the Big Five personality traits, demonstrate a greater inclina ti on and willingness to par ti cipate in skills development courses implemented in distributed work se tti ngs (Ostmeier & Strobel, 2022). A ft er the connec ti on between the Big Five per ‐ sonality traits and proac ti vity has been established, the final step in developing a model is to create ap ‐ propriate employee development programs that are suitable for distributed work environments. Given the significance of employee proac ti vity in such pro ‐ grams, employee ‐driven development programs prove to be a valuable approach that aligns directly with the proac ti ve conduct of employees in a dis ‐ tributed work se tti ng. Specifically, employees ac ‐ ti vely seek and create opportuniti es for personal and career growth, and the organiza ti on supports them by providing adequate resources to facilitate this process (Dachner et al., 2021). For example, Star ‐ bucks covers the expenses of formal university edu ‐ ca ti onal programs for employees who demonstrate self ‐ini ti a ti ve behavior by selec ti ng and enrolling in such programs. Therefore, employee ‐driven devel ‐ opment programs have emerged as the most desir ‐ able type of employee development program in a distributed work environment (Dachner et al., 2021). In this way, we also highlight the third proposi ti on in our model, which describes the posi ti ve rela ti onship between distributed work se tti ngs and employee de ‐ velopment prac ti ces. Our integra ti ve model connects these three concepts by highligh ti ng their interdependence and the importance of considering their impact in dis ‐ tributed work se tti ngs within a digital context. The model proposes that specific Big Five personality traits (e.g., openness, agreeableness, and extraver ‐ sion) are posi ti vely associated with proac ti ve em ‐ ployee behavior, which, in turn, is related to employee development ini ti a ti ves. The model also highlights the importance of employee ‐driven de ‐ velopment ini ti a ti ves in distributed work environ ‐ ments and the need for organiza ti ons to provide adequate resources to support such ini ti a ti ves. In conclusion, our conceptual model provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the complex nature of employee development in dis ‐ tributed work se tti ngs within a digital context. It highlights the importance of specific personality traits, proac ti vity, and employee ‐driven develop ‐ ment ini ti a ti ves, and their interdependence in pro ‐ mo ti ng employee development. The model has prac ti cal implica ti ons for organiza ti ons looking to design e ffec ti ve employee development programs DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 65 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 66 Jure Andolšek, Armin Salki ć: Embracing the Digital Age: The Impact of Proac ti vity and Big Five Personality Traits on Employee Development in distributed work environments, by iden ti fying the key factors that contribute to successful ini ti a ti ves (Semeijn, Van der Heijden, & De Beuckelaer, 2020; Dachner et al., 2021). 5 Discussion 5.1 Theore ti cal Contribu ti ons This study addresses several gaps in the literature on employee development, and makes significant contribu ti ons to the field. Adop ti ng a mixed ‐methods approach that combines theore ti cal insights with prac ti cal examples from successful large ‐scale organi ‐ za ti ons, our study elucidates how various methods and approaches can enhance economic outcomes, augment employee sa ti sfac ti on, and promote op ti mal organiza ti onal characteris ti cs. Our inves ti ga ti on focuses on the interplay be ‐ tween the Big Five personality traits, proac ti vity, and employee development in distributed work se tti ngs. Prior research has established associa ti ons between two of these three constructs, specifically between Big Five personality traits and proac ti vity (Thomas, Whitman, & Viswesvaran, 2010), and between proac ti vity and employee development (Ghitulescu, 2018). Our study builds on this literature by exam ‐ ining the rela ti onship among all three constructs while also considering the impact of distributed work on employee development. Although we did not conduct empirical research, we provide prac ti cal examples from larger organiza ti ons that illustrate a posi ti ve rela ti onship between these constructs. Semeijn et al.’s (2020) linear regression analysis inves ti gated the impact of Big Five personality traits on job success, including par ti cipa ti on in develop ‐ ment ac ti vi ti es, and found that these traits have posi ti ve implica ti ons for job performance, job sa ti s ‐ fac ti on, and skills development. This study con ‐ firmed previous claims about the associa ti on between Big Five personality traits and employee development (Semeijn et al., 2020). Moreover, the case studies presented in this paper support Semeijn et al.’s results. For example, Google’s Project Aristotle study revealed that the most produc ti ve teams exhibit a range of so ft skills that can be a tt ributed to the openness and extraver ‐ sion dimensions of the Big Five classifica ti on (Duhigg, 2016). Similarly, a survey conducted by the Na ti onal Associa ti on of Colleges and Employers showed that most employers seek candidates with high levels of interpersonal communica ti on and openness to interact e ffec ti vely with external stake ‐ Figure 1: Integra ti ve conceptual model with proposi ti ons DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 66 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 67 holders (Koncz & Gray, 2022). The case studies sug ‐ gest that individuals with high scores on traits such as openness, agreeableness, and extraversion are more likely to engage in proac ti vity and develop ‐ ment ac ti vi ti es, which is consistent with the man ‐ agement prac ti ces of leading companies such as Google, Chipotle, Amazon, and Starbucks. 5.2 Prac ti cal Implica ti ons In light of the prevalent u ti liza ti on of distributed work se tti ngs, the cul ti va ti on of human capital has gained paramount significance for both employers and employees (Dachner et al., 2021). Given the ex ‐ orbitant costs associated with the recruitment of fresh talent and the adverse outcomes of elevated turnover rates, the implementa ti on of e fficacious employee development ini ti a ti ves may furnish a substan ti al return on investment for any given orga ‐ niza ti on (Holton, 1996). Consequently, employee development programs can be regarded as a prag ‐ ma ti c mechanism that enables organiza ti ons to at ‐ tain a competiti ve edge and maintain a highly advantageous posi ti on within the labor market (Dachner et al., 2021). In the ini ti al phase, organiza ti ons may formu ‐ late their recruitment strategies by taking into ac ‐ count personality traits such as agreeableness and extraversion, which were iden ti fied by Kickhuk and Wiesner (1997) as crucial factors in the employee development process. For example, Google’s hiring approach incorporates so ft skills such as emo ti onal intelligence, curiosity, and cri ti cal thinking, in addi ‐ ti on to technical exper ti se, as supported by empiri ‐ cal research (Strauss, 2017; Duhigg, 2016). A ft er organiza ti ons have recruited individuals with favor ‐ able personality traits, managers should foster proac ti ve behavior within the organiza ti on and cre ‐ ate an environment that supports such behavior (Lamovšek et al., 2022). To promote overall proac ‐ ti vity in telework, several essen ti al factors must be priori ti zed and considered. Two of the most pivotal factors that can posi ti vely impact proac ti vity are in ‐ ternal mo ti va ti on and digital literacy, according to Siswanto, Wu, Widowa ti , and Wakid (2022). Internal mo ti va ti on serves as a potent driving force for proac ti ve behavior, and refers to the inclina ti on to engage in proac ti ve ac ti ons that arise intrinsically rather than externally. On the other hand, digital lit ‐ eracy pertains to the ability to use technology e ffec ‐ ti vely and e fficiently, which is increasingly crucial in the current digital era. Google endeavors to foster proac ti ve behavior among its employees by assign ‐ ing them more ‐meaningful work, involving them in projects beyond their immediate responsibili ti es, and se tti ng ambi ti ous goals to encourage them to a tt ain new heights (Main, 2022). In the final phase, organiza ti ons may devise employee ‐driven development programs, which in ‐ volve the proac ti ve par ti cipa ti on of employees in iden ti fying their developmental needs, exploring growth opportuni ti es, and managing their career progression. According to our third hypothesis, em ‐ ployee ‐driven development techniques are par ti cu ‐ larly suitable for distributed work se tti ngs (Dachner et al., 2021). Hence, companies can introduce a broad array of employee ‐driven development meth ‐ ods, such as massive open online courses, webinars, cer ti fica ti ons, job expansion, and job cra ft ing (Dachner et al., 2021). These methods already are in place at several prominent companies, such as the Urban Company’s online learning academy and Amazon’s scholarships and financial assistance to aid employees in acquiring a bachelor’s degree (D’sa ‐Wilson, 2022; Marquit, 2022). 5.3 Limita ti ons and Future Research Direc ti ons Although exis ti ng research has provided valu ‐ able insights into the rela ti onship between the Big Five personality traits, proac ti vity, and employee de ‐ velopment, several limita ti ons should be considered regarding the generalizability of these findings. Firstly, this study is based on theore ti cal work and prac ti cal examples provided by established compa ‐ nies, and no empirical research was conducted to obtain data directly from organiza ti ons. This ap ‐ proach may limit the ability to capture fully the nu ‐ ances of how personality traits and proac ti vity impact employee development in various organiza ‐ ti onal contexts. Secondly, although most previous studies sug ‐ gest a posi ti ve rela ti onship between the Big Five personality traits, proac ti vity, and career success (Seibert, Kraimer, & Crant, 2001), many of those DRMJ vol12 no01 2023 (print).qxp_Prelom 19/05/2023 10:36 Page 67 Dynamic Rela ti onships Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, May 2023 68 Jure Andolšek, Armin Salki ć: Embracing the Digital Age: The Impact of Proac ti vity and Big Five Personality Traits on Employee Development studies were primarily theore ti cal in nature. Future research should consider prac ti cal implica ti ons of these findings to ensure their generalizability in real ‐ world economic environments. Lastly, this study drew on prac ti cal examples only from large interna ti onal companies, which may not capture fully the experiences of smaller organi ‐ za ti ons or those with weaker organiza ti onal cul ‐ tures. Therefore, cau ti on should be exercised in generalizing these findings to other types of organi ‐ za ti ons. In summary, although the exis ti ng research provides valuable insights into the connec ti on be ‐ tween the Big Five personality traits and proac ti vity and their e ffect on employee development, these limita ti ons suggest that further research is needed to understand fully the nuances of this rela ti onship across a wider range of organiza ti onal contexts. To address the limita ti ons of exis ti ng research, future studies could explore several direc ti ons. Firstly, conduc ti ng a longitudinal study with a diverse range of companies could provide a deeper understanding of the rela ti onship between the Big Five personality traits, proac ti vity, and employee development. This study could include a larger sample of companies with varying characteris ti cs such as size, revenues, and culture to ensure that the results are more broadly generalizable. Secondly, future research should priori ti ze prac ti cal applica ti ons and ensure that it extends beyond theore ti cal frameworks. By ex ‐ amining prac ti cal applica ti ons, researchers can gain a more comprehensive understanding of how per ‐ sonality traits and proac ti vity impact employee de ‐ velopment in real ‐world contexts. In conclusion, future research could focus on the impact of interven ti ons aimed at enhancing proac ti vity and employee development. Specifically, studies could inves ti gate the e ffec ti veness of train ‐ ing programs or coaching interven ti ons designed to promote employee proac ti vity and facilitate skill de ‐ velopment. Such research could help iden ti fy e ffec ‐ ti ve interven ti ons that organiza ti ons can use to enhance employee development and proac ti vity. In summary, future research should priori ti ze prac ti cal applica ti ons, broaden the range of companies under study, and explore the e ffec ti veness of interven ti ons such as training programs or coaching interven ti ons to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the rela ti onship between the Big Five personality traits, proac ti vity, and employee development. EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLE ČEK Osebnostne lastnos ti so klju čnega pomena za razumevanje posameznikovega vedenja, pet velikih osebnostnih lastnos ti pa omogo ča vpogled v pet temeljnih lastnos ti , ki so podlaga za to vedenje. Boljše razumevanje posameznikovih velikih pet osebnostnih lastnos ti lahko pomaga pri prepozna ‐ vanju njihove povezave s proak ti vnostjo, kar posledi čno pozi ti vno vpliva na razvoj zaposlenih v pod ‐ jetju. Dotič ni članek raziskuje povezavo med pe ti mi velikimi osebnostnimi lastnostmi in proak ti vnostjo ter njihovo skupno povezavo na razvoj zaposlenih. Študija poudarja pomen porazdel ‐ jenega dela in izpostavlja pozi ti vno povezavo med š ti rimi od pe ti h velikih osebnostnih lastnos ti (tj. odprtost, ekstravertnost, prijaznost in vestnost) in proak ti vnostjo. Naše raziskave temeljijo na teo ‐ re tič nih koncep ti h in prak tič nih analizah primerov ve čjih podje ti j, ki dokazujejo ugodno razmerje med pe ti mi velikimi osebnostnimi lastnostmi, proak ti vnostjo in razvojem zaposlenih. Ugotovitve študije poudarjajo pomen zagotavljanja ustreznih priložnos ti za razvoj zaposlenih in poudarjajo poz ‐ i ti ven vpliv porazdeljenega dela na spodbujanje razvoja zaposlenih. Rezulta ti študije so pomembni za raziskovalce, ki izvajajo nadaljnje raziskave na to temo, in priporo čamo, da podjetja vložijo sredstva v zagotavljanje usposabljanja svoje delovne sile o proak ti vnem vedenju, saj lahko le ‐to privede do izboljšane organizacijske uspešnos ti in spodbuja individualni razvoj v podjetju. 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