G. CHEN et al.: EFFECTS OF DEFORMATION TEMPERATURE ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL ...
787–793
EFFECTS OF DEFORMATION TEMPERATURE ON THE
MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
AA3003 ALUMINIUM ALLOY
VPLIV TEMPERATURE DEFORMACIJE NA
MIKROSTRUKTURO IN MEHANSKE LASTNOSTI Al
ZLITINE AA3003
Guiqing Chen
1
, Gaosheng Fu
2
, Xiaodong Lin
3
, Lili Song
2
, Chaozeng Cheng
2
, Tianyun Wei
1
1
Fujian Chuanzheng Communications College, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 112 Shoushan Road, Fuzhou 350007, China
2
Fuzhou University, College of Materials Science and Engineering, 2 Xueyuan Road, Fuzhou 350108, China
3
Fujian Chuanzheng Communications College, Department of Marine Engineering, 112 Shoushan Road, Fuzhou 350007, China
fugaosheng@fzu.edu.cn
Prejem rokopisa – received: 2018-04-03; sprejem za objavo – accepted for publication: 2018-07-20
doi:10.17222/mit.2018.063
The AA3003 aluminium alloy was deformed by isothermal compression in the deformation temperature range 300–500 °C at a
strain rate of 0.l s
–1
with a Gleeble-1500 thermal simulator. The microstructure of the alloy was observed by OM and TEM, and
the hardness was measured with a microhardness tester. The results show that the flow stress decreases with an increase of the
deformation temperature. The dislocation density in the grain is large, and the polygonal structure occurs in the local area under
low-temperature conditions. When the temperature reaches 400 °C, the dislocation density decreases gradually, and the repeti-
tive polygonal process occurs. The deformation mechanism is changed from dynamic recovery to dynamic recrystallization
(DRX). The DRX volume fraction and grain size increase with an increase of the deformation temperature. The relationship
between the micro-Vickers hardness and the DRX grain size of the alloy after hot deformation agrees with the Hall-Petch
equation. At the strain rate of 0.1 s
–1
, the optimum temperature of hot deformation for the alloy is about 400 °C.
Keywords: AA3003 aluminium alloy, hot deformation, dynamic recrystallization, grain size, micro-Vickers hardness
Al zlitino AA3003 so avtorji pri~ujo~ega ~lanka deformirali z izotermnim stiskanjem v podro~ju temperatur deformacije med
300 °C in 500 °C pri hitrostih deformacije 0.l s
–1
na termi~nem simulatorju Gleeble-1500. Mikrostrukturo deformirane zlitine so
opazovali pod opti~nim (OM) in presevnim elektronskim mikroskopom (TEM) in izmerili mikrotrdoto zlitine. Rezultati
raziskave so pokazali, da meja te~enja pada z nara{~ajo~o temperaturo deformacije. Gostota dislokacij v kristalnih zrnih je
velika in poligonalna struktura nastaja v lokalnih podro~jih pri ni`jih temperaturah. Ko temperatura dose`e 400 °C se gostota
dislokacij postopno zmanj{a in nastopi proces ponovne poligonalizacije. Mehanizem deformacije se spremeni iz dinami~ne
poprave v dinami~no rekristalizacijo (DRX). Volumski dele` DRX in velikost zrn se pove~ujeta z povi{evanjem temperature
deformacije. Zveza med Vikersovo mikrotrdoto in velikostjo DRX zrn zlitine sledi Hall-Petch-evi ena~bi. Pri hitrosti
deformacije 0.1 s
–1
so ugotovili, da je optimalna temperatura deformacije zlitine okoli 400 °C.
Klju~ne besede: Al zlitina AA3003, vro~a deformacija, dinami~na rekristalizacija, velikost zrn, mikrotrdota po Vickersu
1 INTRODUCTION
One of the aims of thermoplastic deformation for alu-
minium alloys is DRX, which facilitates fine-grain
microstructures and a performance in accordance with
requirements.
1
When the alloy enters the steady-state
deformation stage, the orientation difference of the
sub-grains and the sub-grain size are kept constant, i.e.,
the sub-grain structure is kept constant. During this time
the DRX structure of the alloy does not change with the
increase of the deformation, and it is influenced mainly
by the deformation temperature and the strain rate.
2–4
After the high-temperature compression deformation, the
structure has changed. The structure experiences work
hardening, dynamic softening and dislocation configu-
ration changes, which will all affect the performance of
the alloy.
5
The DRX process has become the focus of
many researchers in studying the high-temperature
deformation behaviour of metals and alloys. Yang dis-
covered that DRX and the coarsening of dynamic
precipitation might be responsible for the continuous
flow-softening behaviour by studying the 6A82 alumi-
nium alloy.
6
The effect of the deformation temperature
on the microstructural evolution of the 6082 Al alloy was
studied by Kumar.
7
According to a previous study of the
research group, the thermal deformation constitutive
equation for the AA3003 aluminium alloy has been
established and it is found that the deformation condi-
tions have a great influence on the microstructure and the
properties of the alloy.
8
The optimum strain rate of the
alloy is 0.1 s
–1
, and the deformation temperature plays a
key role in the final forming performance of the alloy.
9
Recrystallization is a process that requires heat acti-
vation. As the deformation temperature increases, the
deformation storage energy in the sample is released
more during recrystallization, which increases the
recrystallization driving force and increases the
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 52 (2018) 6, 787–793 787
UDK 67.017:669.715:539.377 ISSN 1580-2949
Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni ~lanek MTAEC9, 52(6)787(2018)

nucleation rate, resulting in enhanced recrystallization.
Therefore, it is of great practical significance to study the
effect of the hot-deformation temperature on the micro-
structure and the properties of the AA3003 aluminium
alloy. A thermal simulation experiment was used to
reveal the high-temperature deformation mechanism of
the alloy, and build the intrinsic relationship between the
deformation temperature and the DRX grain size and
performance, which provides a reference for the rational
selection of the thermoforming process parameters.
2 EXPERIMENTAL PART
The experimental material was the AA3003 alumi-
nium alloy with a chemical composition given in Table
1. The material used was heat treated at 510 °C for 20 h.
Cylindrical specimens of 10 mm in diameter and 15 mm
in length were machined for the hot-compression tests.
The specimens were mounted on a Gleeble-1500 thermal
simulator for an isothermal constant-strain-rate hot-com-
pression test. The experimental conditions for the hot
deformation were: heating rate of the sample controlled
at 10 °C/s, then insulation for 5 min after reaching the set
temperature. The constant strain rate compression was
then performed. The amount of compression defor-
mation was controlled at 0.7. The water cooling was per-
formed immediately after compression deformation. The
deformation temperature was in the range 300–500 °C at
a strain rate of 0.1 s
–1
. The microstructure characteri-
zation of the deformed samples was observed using an
XJG-05 optical microscope (OM) and a JEM-2100F
transmission electron microscope (TEM). The grain size
was measured using the linear-intercept method. The
microhardness of the deformed sample was tested. The
load was 0.49 N, and the load holding time was 30 s. The
microhardness of the sample was averaged after 5 points
were tested for each sample.
Table 1: Chemical composition of the AA3003 aluminium alloy, in
mass fractions, (w/%)
Fe Si Mn Cu Ti Mg Ni Zn Al
AA3003 0.62 0.58 1.09 0.0680.006 0.03 0.0070.008
bal-
ance
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Flow-stress curve
The true-stress vs. true-strain curve of the AA3003
aluminium alloy deformed at a strain rate of 0.1 s
–1
and a
deformation temperature of 300–500 °C is shown in
Figure 1. Table 2 shows the yield stress under different
deformation conditions. It is clear that the true-stress vs.
true-strain curves are almost straight before the strain
reaches the peak strain, and the slope is large. During
this time the alloy is mainly in the micro-deformation
and dynamic-recovery stage. When the strain reaches a
certain degree, the flow stress increases rapidly to a
peak. With a further increase in the strain, the flow stress
decreases gradually, i.e., the flow-softening phenomenon
occurs. With an increase of the strain, the flow stress
tends to be in a relatively stable state. This is due to the
results of the balance achieved by the work hardening
and the dynamic softening in the plastic deformation
process.
10
At this time, the essence of the alloy defor-
mation is the dynamic balance achieved by proliferation,
offsetting the annihilation and reorganization of the
dislocations.
Table 2: Yield stress of the alloy deformed at 0.1 s
–1
Temperature/°C 300 350 400 450 500
Yield stress/MPa 62.3 54.5 51.2 39.8 34.3
At the same strain rate, the flow stress decreases with
the increase of the deformation temperature. The in-
crease of the deformation temperature leads to a decrease
of the critical slitting stress caused by the crystal slip,
because the slip resistance originates from the binding
force among the metal crystal atoms. The kinetic energy
of the atom increases with the increases of the tem-
perature, so that the binding force among the atoms
decreases, i.e., the shear stress is reduced, which reduces
the interplanar slip and the obstruction of the disloca-
tion’s movement, so the flow stress of the material
decreases gradually in the process of hot deformation.
For different slip systems, the increase in the deforma-
tion temperature leads to a difference of the decrease
rates in the critical shear stress, so there may be a new
slip system at high temperatures. The grain-boundary
shear resistance significantly reduced with the increase
of the temperature, so that the grain boundary slides
easily, resulting in a deformation resistance decrease.
11,12
At the same time, as the deformation temperature in-
creases, the nucleation rate and the growth rate of the
G. CHEN et al.: EFFECTS OF DEFORMATION TEMPERATURE ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL ...
788 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 52 (2018) 6, 787–793
Figure 1: True-stress vs. true-strain curves of AA3003 aluminium
alloy deformed at 0.1 s
–1

DRX of the alloy increase, resulting in an enhanced
DRX softening effect. The nucleation of DRX is
controlled by the hot-activation process. When the
temperature rises, the difference between the free energy
of the new phase and the free energy of the parent phase
will increase, thus increasing the nucleation rate. At the
same time, the driving force of the nucleus growth in-
creases with the increase of the temperature. With the
increasing deformation temperature, the dynamic reco-
very and the DRX are more likely to occur, so that the
dislocation density can be reduced, which can offset the
work hardening caused by the plastic deformation pro-
cess, so that the flow stress of the hot deformation de-
creases.
3.2 Effect of the Deformation Temperature on the
Microstructure
Figure 2 shows TEM microstructures of the AA3003
aluminium alloy at a strain rate of 0.1 s
–1
. It is clear that
most of the microstructure is deformed at 300 °C, as
shown in Figure 2a. At this time, the dislocation density
of the crystal is large, and a dislocation cell is formed by
a high-density dislocation accumulation. The polygonal
structure occurs in the local area, and the alloy mainly
undergoes dynamic recovery to form a typical sub-grain
structure.
13–15
This is due to the fact that there is a
dynamic balance between the dislocation propagation
caused by the strain hardening and the dislocation can-
cellation and recombination caused by the recovery
softening, resulting in a relatively stable sub-grain struc-
ture. The sub-grain exhibits a slightly elongated feature,
and its extension is perpendicular to the direction of the
compression axis.
When the deformation temperature increases to
400 °C, as shown in Figure 2b, equiaxed or nearly
equiaxed sub-grains are formed, and the sub-grain
boundary is relatively straight and clear, indicating that
the dynamic recovery process has basically been com-
pleted. With the increase of the deformation temperature,
the diffusion capacity of the atomic migration is
enhanced, the climbing ability of the screw dislocation is
also increased, and a lot of vacancies are produced by the
strain, which promote the dislocation disintegration and
reorganization to be more thorough and perfect.
16
The
moving distance of the dislocation increases, the dislo-
cation density gradually decreases, and the repeated
polygonal process occurs, which make the grain boun-
dary clear and sharp, and cause some of the sub-grains
with the same orientation to combine and grow, thus
forming a larger size, and a more complete sub-grain
structure.
17
When the deformation temperature increases to
500 °C, the interplanetary dislocation density is further
reduced, and the size of the merged sub-grain increases.
Through the merging and growth of the sub-grains or
strain-induced grain-boundary migration, DRX occurs,
as shown in Figure 2c.
It is clear from the above analysis that under the
conditions of the same deformation degree and strain
rate, the sub-grain size of the alloy increases with an
increase of the deformation temperature. According to
the theory of metal plastic deformation hot activation,
when the alloy enters the steady-state rheological stage,
the softening is achieved mainly through the slip of the
screw-type dislocation and the climb of the edge dislo-
cation. With the increase of the deformation temperature,
the atomic hot-activation ability is enhanced, and the
number of hot activations in the atomic unit strain in-
crease. The climb can occur quickly due to the large
number of vacancies produced by the strain, so the
mutual cancellation and reorganization of the disloca-
tions are more thorough, and the movable distance of the
dislocation is also increased. Since the movable dislo-
cation accelerates the motion of the sub-grain boundary,
the activity of the sub-grain boundary is enhanced,
leading to the growth of the sub-grain boundary.
18,19
Therefore, with the increase of deformation temperature,
the activity of the sub-grain boundary is further en-
hanced, and the sub-grain growth is intensified, causing
a sub-grain size with an increasing trend.
G. CHEN et al.: EFFECTS OF DEFORMATION TEMPERATURE ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL ...
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 52 (2018) 6, 787–793 789
Figure 2: TEM images of AA3003 aluminium alloy deformed at 0.1 s
–1
: a) 300 °C, b) 400 °C, c) 500 °C

3.3 Relationship between the Deformation Tempera-
ture and the DRX Grain Size
The grain structure of the AA3003 aluminium alloy
with the changes of the deformation temperature at a
strain rate of 0.1 s
–1
is shown in Figure 3. It is clear that
the structure is mainly composed of large deformed
grains when the deformation temperature is low ( 300 °C).
The grain is elongated in the direction of deformation,
and a small amount of recrystallized grains appear
around the large grains. At this time, it is mainly the
structure of the dynamic recovery. When the temperature
rises to 400 °C, the grain shape is uniform and fine, the
original large grain is basically replaced by fine recrys-
tallized grains, and the structure is in a more stable state,
as shown in Figure 3c. When the deformation tempe-
rature is 500 °C, the recrystallized grains will gradually
grow, so that the whole structure shows a coarsening
trend, as shown in Figure 3e.
According to Figure 3, the average grain size was
measured using the linear-intercept method. The grain
size of the alloy deformed under different hot-deforma-
tion conditions can be obtained as shown in Table 3.Itis
clear that the grain size decreases with the temperature
increase, indicating that the DRX process proceeds faster
as the temperature increases. Recrystallization is a pro-
cess that requires hot activation.
20–22
With the increase of
the deformation temperature, the deformation storage
energy in the sample is released more effectively in the
recrystallization. It makes the crystallization driving
force increase, and the nucleation rate is increased,
resulting in the recrystallization being enhanced. When
the deformation temperature exceeds 400 °C, the recrys-
tallization grain appears to grow. Therefore, the DRX
structure obtained by deformation in the vicinity of the
strain rate of 0.1 s
–1
and the deformation temperature of
400 °C is preferable in view of the microstructure obser-
vation shown in Figure 2b and Figure 3c.
Table 3: Average grain size of the alloy deformed at 0.1 s
–1
Temperature/°C 300 350 400 450 500
Grain size/μm 17.8 20.5 24.3 28.7 29.6
3.4 Calculation of the DRX Volume Fraction
To establish a DRX kinematic model, the DRX
volume fraction must be measured first. According to the
traditional measurement involving the metallographic
method, the result will inevitably be subject to metallo-
graphic corrosion and field selection. The DRX volume
fraction is calculated from the eigenvalues of the
flow-stress curve during the hot deformation.
23,24
X
s
d
REC DRX
REC
=
−
−


(1)
where X
d
is the DRX volume fraction, REC
is the stress
value on the flow-stress curve when the metal does not
undergo dynamic softening,  DRX
is the stress value on
the high-temperature flow-stress curve, and  s
is the
steady stress value of the high-temperature flow-stress
curve. The meaning of the symbols in Equation (1) is
shown in Figure 4. According to the experimental data
of thermodynamics, the actual flow stress and the DRX
steady flow stress can be obtained. The dynamic recov-
ery curve of the alloy can be obtained by nonlinear
least-squares fitting and extrapolation based on the data
G. CHEN et al.: EFFECTS OF DEFORMATION TEMPERATURE ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL ...
790 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 52 (2018) 6, 787–793
Figure 3: OM images of the AA3003 aluminium alloy deformed at
0.1 s
–1
:a)T = 300 °C, b) T = 350 °C, c) T = 400 °C, d) T = 450 °C,
e) T = 500 °C
Figure 4: Illustration of the DRX volume fraction of metallic
materials

of the flow-stress curve before DRX. The fitting mathe-
matical model is:
24,25


 −
−
=−
−
0.2
ss
cM
02
1
.
() e (2)
where ss
is the steady-state stress value on the dynamic
recovery flow-stress curve, and C and M are constant
coefficients.
Combining Equations (1) and (2) with the experi-
mental data of Figure 1, the DRX volume fraction under
different deformation conditions can be calculated, and
the relationship curve between the DRX volume fraction
and the deformation amount are plotted (Figure 5). It is
clear that in the same amount of deformation, the DRX
volume fraction increases with the increase of the defor-
mation temperature. This is because the Z (Zener-Hollo-
man) value decreases with an increase of the defor-
mation temperature,
8
then the critical strain value of the
DRX decreases,
25
resulting in the DRX being more likely
to occur. In addition, the grain-boundary migration
ability is enhanced with the increasing deformation tem-
perature, so that the nucleation rate of the recrystal-
lization increased, and the DRX was carried out more
fully.
3.5 Effect of the Deformation Temperature on the
Micro-Vickers Hardness
The micro-Vickers hardness of the alloy deformed
under different conditions is shown in Table 4. It can be
seen that micro-Vickers hardness decreased with the
increases of the deformation temperature, which relates
to the occurrence of only a small amount of DRX at the
low temperature. At the deformation temperature of
450 °C and 500 °C, the micro-Vickers hardness changes
little, indicating that their deformation mechanisms are
similar. Under high-temperature conditions, the DRX is
carried out more fully, and some of the grains begin to
grow, leading to a slight change in the micro-Vickers
hardness.
Table 4: Micro-Vickers hardness of the alloy deformed at 0.1 s
–1
Temperature/°C 300 350 400 450 500
Micro-Vickers hardness/μm 45.8 45.3 43.1 37.2 35.9
According to the data in Table 3 with Table 4, the
relationship between the micro-Vickers hardness (HV)
and the yield strength ( y
) of the alloy can be obtained
(Figure 6). There is a positive linear relationship bet-
ween the micro-Vickers hardness and the yield
strength:
26
HV
y
=+ 22190 0398 ..  (3)
The effect of the grain size (d) on the yield strength
( y
) can be expressed using the Hall-Petch equation (Fig-
ure 7):
27
 y
d
=− + 5096 48184
1
.. (4)
It is clear from Equations (3) and (4) that the smaller
the average grain size, the higher the micro-Vickers
hardness. Therefore, the relationship between the micro-
G. CHEN et al.: EFFECTS OF DEFORMATION TEMPERATURE ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL ...
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 52 (2018) 6, 787–793 791
Figure 5: Relationship between recrystallized fraction and true strain
deformed at 0.1 s
–1
Figure 6: Curve of the micro-Vickers hardness and the yield strength
Figure 7: Curve of the grain size and the yield strength

Vickers hardness and the grain size also agrees with the
Hall-Petch equation.
4 CONCLUSIONS
(1) At the same strain rate, the flow stress of the
AA3003 aluminium alloy decreases with the increase of
the deformation temperature. When the strain reaches a
certain degree, the flow stress increases rapidly to a peak
value. With a further increase of the strain, the flow
stress decreases gradually, i.e., the flow-softening pheno-
menon occurs.
(2) Under the condition of low temperature, the
AA3003 aluminium alloy is mainly composed of a sub-
grain structure, and dynamic recovery occurs at this
time. When the temperature reaches 400 °C, the dislo-
cation density decreases gradually, resulting in a
repeated polygonal process and the occurrence of DRX.
For the same amount of deformation, the DRX volume
fraction increases as the deformation temperature
increases.
(3) The higher the deformation temperature, the
faster the recrystallization process. The DRX grain size
increases with the increasing deformation temperature.
When the deformation temperature exceeds 400 °C, the
recrystallization grain begins to grow. The micro-Vickers
hardness after hot deformation decreases with the
increase of the deformation temperature, which is in
accordance with the Hall-Petch equation. The ideal
structure and performance can be obtained at a strain rate
of 0.1 s
–1
and a deformation temperature of 400 °C.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial
support of the Fujian Natural Science Foundation
(2017J01156, 2017J01083), Science and Technology
Project of Fujian Education Department (JA15659),
Transportation science and technology project of Fujian
Province (201831), and the materials nearly net forming
and digital manufacturing technology service team of
Fujian Chuanzheng Communications College of China.
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