ACTA GEOGRAPHICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK SLOVENICA 2020 60 1 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 60-1 • 2020 Contents Mojca POKLAR Comparison of the sonar recording method and the aerial photography methodfor mapping seagrass meadows 7 Vanja PAVLUKOVIĆ, Uglješa STANKOV, Daniela ARSENOVIĆ Social impacts of music festivals: A comparative study of Sziget (Hungary) and Exit (Serbia) 21 Péter János KISS, Csaba TÖLGYESI, Imola BÓNI, László ERDŐS, András VOJTKÓ,István Elek MAÁK, Zoltán BÁTORI The effects of intensive logging on the capacity of karst dolines to provide potential microrefugia for cool-adapted plants 37 Radu SĂGEATĂ Commercial services and urban space reconversion in Romania (1990–2017) 49 Kristina IVANČIČ, Jernej JEŽ, Blaž MILANIČ, Špela KUMELJ, Andrej ŠMUC Application of a mass movement susceptibility model in the heterogeneous Miocene clastic successions of the Slovenj Gradec Basin, northeast Slovenia 1 Andrej GOSAR Measurements of tectonic micro-displacements within the Idrija fault zone in the Učjavalley (W Slovenia) 79 Piotr RAŹNIAK, Sławomir DOROCKI, Anna WINIARCZYK-RAŹNIAK Economic resilienceofthe command andcontrolfunctionof citiesin Centraland EasternEurope 95 Mateja FERK, Rok CIGLIČ, Blaž KOMAC, Dénes LÓCZY Management of small retention ponds and their impact on flood hazard prevention in the Slovenske Gorice Hills 107 Gregor KOVAČIČ Sediment production in flysch badlands: A case study from Slovenian Istria 127 Vesna LUKIĆ, Aleksandar TOMAŠEVIĆ Immigrant integration regimes in Europe: Incorporating the Western Balkan countries 143 Mitja DURNIK Community development: LocalImmigrationPartnershipsin Canadaand implications forSlovenia 155 ISSN 1581-6613 9 771581 661010 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: LOCAL IMMIGRATION PARTNERSHIPS IN CANADA AND IMPLICATIONS FOR SLOVENIA Mitja Durnik Maple leaf, the Canadian national symbol. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.5136 UDC: 316.4.063.3-054.72(71+497.4) COBISS: 1.01 Mitja Durnik1 Communitydevelopment:LocalImmigrationPartnershipsinCanadaandimplications for Slovenia ABSTRACT:Canadaisperceivedasastronglydesiredfinaldestinationformanyrefugeesandimmigrants due to its socio-economic advantages. The author assesses the Canadian praxis of the immigrant settle­ment from the community development standpoint, with a specific interest to present how successful Canadian immigration policy has been on the local level by using the established Local Immigration Partnershipsmodel.Ontheotherhand,byadoptingtheso-calledrestrictedmodelofimmigrantintegration Sloveniahasnotdevelopedaconsistentmodelofintegration,specificallyleavingasidethepotentialoflocal areas in resolving these complex issues. The paper is confirming that due to institutionalized multilevel partnership Canada has been more successful in immigrant integration than Slovenia. In both countries, however, integration into the health system has been evidently the most acute problem. In order to obtain more relevant results, a mixed-methods research was used combining interviews and integration index­es. In the majority of integration parameters, Canada shows significantly better results than Slovenia. KEY WORDS: geography, community, development, immigrants, integration, Canada, Slovenia Skupnostnirazvoj:lokalnapriseljenskapartnerstvavKanadiinimplikacijezaSlovenijo POVZETEK: Kanada je zaradi svojih socialno-ekonomskih prednosti ciljna država za številne begunce in priseljence. Avtor v članku ocenjuje kanadsko prakso naseljevanja priseljencev s stališča skupnostnega razvoja. V ospredju je predstavitev uspešne kanadske politike priseljevanja in njenega učinka na lokalni ravnizuporabomodelalokalnihintegracijskihpartnerstev. NasprotnopajedosedajSlovenijauveljavljala t.i. restriktivni model integracije priseljencev, pri čemer ni upoštevala potenciala lokalnih skupnosti pri reševanjutekompleksneproblematike.Vprispevkusmopotrdili,dajeKanadazaradiinstitucionaliziranega večstopenjskegapartnerstvauspešnejšavintegracijipriseljencevkotSlovenija.Vobehdržavahjeintegracija priseljencev v zdravstveni sistem najbolj akuten problem. Za namen raziskave smo uporabili kombiniran pristop, kjer smo izvedli intervjuje in primerjali nekatere kazalce integracije priseljencev. Kanada glede na večino integracijskih parametrov kaže bistveno boljše rezultate kot Slovenija. KLJUČNE BESEDE: geografija, skupnost, razvoj, priseljenci, integracija, Kanada, Slovenija The paper was submitted for publication on December 19th, 2018. Uredništvo je prejelo prispevek 19. decembra 2018. 1 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Administration, Ljubljana, Slovenia mitja.durnik@fu.uni-lj.si 156 1 Introduction Slovenia joined the European Union in 2004 and despite being a member state for over a decade it has still not been recognized as the final country for immigrants, while Canada appears as the decisive goal for newcomers mainly for its rapid economic development. Moreover, comparing both countries, we can also notice different national approaches to integration. Slovenia has been largely following a restrictive approach based on the role of the nation-state (Pajnik 2007), while Canada’s borders have remained open to certain immigrant groups specifically needed for its development purposes (having in mind also the historicalimportanceofimmigration).InCanada,manymultilevelinitiativeshaveemergedofferingpoten­tial solutions for newcomers’ integration. The »welcoming community« approach tried to resolve integrationinsmallcitiesandruralareas(Gibson,BucklaschukandAnnis2017).Thefederalgovernment has launched a program called Community Partnership Settlement Plan partially responding to the con­temporary Syrian refugee crisis. Immigrantsoftenmigratefromhighlyconcentratedethniccommunitiestoraciallymixedplaces(Murdie andGosh2010)inhabitinglessexpensiveareas,whilelateron,theymovetoreputableneighborhoods(Waters andGersteinPineau2016).SegoviaGomez(2011)emphasizedhowcrucialtheethnicgroup’sconcentration for social inclusion is. Canadianauthorsmainlypointedouttherelevanceoflocalpartnershipsinsmallurbanareas(Ma2017; Tibe Bonifacio and Drolet 2017), the formation of minority neighborhoods in big cities (Hou 2004), or specific integration into the urban history (Anisef and Lanphier 2003). According to the Canadian case study concerning Local Immigration Partnerships (onwards LIPs), there has been an important debate onhowruralareashaveinitiateddifferentstrategiesofimmigrantintegration(Ma2017)thanhighlypop­ulated cities. The urban-rural debate and its relation to development strategies in an important manner determinedtheconceptofregionaldevelopmentinSlovenia(KozinaandClifton2019;VintarMally2018; Kozina, Poljak Istenič and Komac 2019). In the Slovenian context, Botrić (2016) emphasized the insufficient targeted support to immigrants by responsible Slovenian institutions. Medvešek and Bešter (2010) addressed crucial issues of integration suchasdemography,housing,andhealth,andVižintin(2017)explainedmulticulturalintegrationinrela­tion to educational challenges. There are three policy fields relevant in our comparative research: (1) labor: how immigrants are inte­gratedinthegenerallabormarket;(2)health:accesstohealthcarespecificallypointingoutculturalaspects of the medical treatment; (3) education: focus on integration of children in schools (see Vižintin 2017). Statesusuallyplaceimmigrantsintotwobroadcategories.Firstly,laborimmigrantsleavinghomeland on an economic basis, and, secondly, asylum seekers and refugees escaping from war zone areas, where their lives are possibly at risk (Kivisto and Faist 2009). 1.1 Community Development Models Communities are somehow a result of economic, cultural and social functions. In fact, the concept has beencaughtupbetweenconventionalperceptionofacommunityasaplace-basedstructureandtheso-called post-place communities having in mind also peoples’ social interactions. Geographical view within the firstoneisoftenrepresentedasarural-urbandebateregardingmodernizationinsociety(Bradshaw2008). Rothman(1996and2007)hasinitiatedthreecommunitydevelopmentapproachesthatmayinterconnect. Planning/policy (social planning) allows planners to use empirically proven data and act as »rationalist« thinkers.Itpresupposestechnocratictop-downactivitieswheregovernmentsusuallydirectpolicyactions (Chen and Ku 2016). Community capacity development (locality development) builds its efforts on peo­ples’ empowerment within communities and is participatory oriented. Planners try to shape the wide spectrum of different governmental and civic organizations in planning tasks. (Hardcastle, Powers and Wenocur2011).Socialadvocacy(socialaction)isoftenusedbymarginalgroupstryingtoradicallychange power relations regarding decision-makers. According to the above discussion, the following general hypotheses were examined: • Due to institutionalized multilevel partnerships, Canada is more successful in integrating immigrants in communities than Slovenia. Additional sub-hypotheses were formed in order to highlight the comparison between the countries: • Thecommunitycapacitydevelopmentmodelisimportantlyconnectedwithahighernationalintegration policy index. • Healthcare integration is the most acute problem in Slovenia and Canada. 2 Methods In the paper, macro (state) policies have been compared using the so-called Migrant Integration Policy Index(onwardsMipex)consistingof167differentpolicyindicatorsjoiningindifferentpolicyasindicated below (index developed by Huddleston et al. 2015). Using Mipex data, we calculated national integration policy in Canada and Slovenia as reflected through governmental decisions on the afore-mentioned pol­icy fields. In general, data are available from 2007 to 2014 for 35 different countries. Communities’ integration capacity research was based on various secondary sources such as reports and experts’ analyses concerning community development. Due to major shortcomings of available rel­evant studies in Slovenia ten semi-structured interviews were conducted with approximately 45-minutes length each, targeting different relevant policy actors like NGOs, policy experts, municipality represen­tatives,andpublicofficials.FormeasuringLjubljanamunicipality’scapacityinclusion,theCitiesofMigration Diagnostic tool was applied (the MyCOM Diagnostic tool is part of a larger project at Cities of Migration (How inclusive…2019) supported by the Open Society Foundations and led by the Cities of Migration initiativeatRyersonUniversity’sGlobalDiversityExchangewithinternationalpartners).In2018,byusing the MyCOM tool, we asked 55 individuals from the Ljubljana municipality area to fulfill parts of the diag­nostic tool (questions related to health, education and economic issues). 3 Building community capacity within Torontonian neighbourhood In 1998 the provincial Ontario government declared to merge six previously independent municipalities into a single one (Sturdy 2014). Local Immigration Partnerships have been initiated by the federal gov­ernment to improve the potential of local communities to resolve issues of immigrant integration (Local Immigration Partnerships… 2014). Torontohasthesecondlargestratioofforeign-borninhabitantsamongthebiggestworldcities(Murdie andGosh2010;AnisefandLanphier2003).Until2012,theTorontonianLIPmodelwasbasedontheneigh­borhood/communityconcept.Lateron,regionalpartnershipshavebeenestablisheddividingmunicipality intofourquadrants.Torontomunicipalitywasreplacedwithfundingagenciesmanagingactivities»onthe ground« (Sturdy 2014). The North Quadrant consisted of Bathurst-Finch, Don Valley,Lawrence Heights, and North York East. In the North York East lived 80,000 residents, 70% of whom were declared as immi­grants. Recent newcomers are often highly educated but they would still represent a significant ratio in the unemployment structure. Only 30% were born in Canada. The countries of origin were China and Hong Kong, Iran, India and the Philippines. 44% of all were born in China (The North York East Local immigration Partnership 2013). AfundamentalstepincreatinglocalpartnershipswastheestablishmentofLIPsCouncils,mainlycon­sistingofsettlementagencies,municipalities,schools,employmentagencies,groupsofnewcomers,provincial administrative bodies, regional governments, etc. ((Local Immigration Partnerships…2014). Important tasks of a LIP council are (Pero 2017):(1) creation of a three-year settlement and integration strategy; (2) determination of action plans and implementation strategies; (3) managing regular meetings with part­ners; (4) education and research. Some of its tasks are delegated to working groups (Pero 2017). Theprojectteamconsistedofdifferentexperts.Twoworkerswerehiredformanagingtheproject,while five animators were carrying outdifferent research activities. Eighteen community organizations became part of the team. Several consultants were identifying the needs and priorities (The North York…2013). Community psychical asset mapping demanded to locate geographical distribution of facilities, focus groups(involvedmorethan200immigrants)tookplacewithserviceprovidersaccordingtodifferentissues. Further activities shaped informant interviews asking management staff from community organizations about their needs. Local service delivery analysis detected the size and financial capabilities of community organizations.Communityconsultationsextendedpreviousdebatespecificallybuildingonafuturevision of community development. Imagining the community’s social and geographic space, newcomers were usingmapsofcommunityinroundtablesdiscussingdifferentobstaclesthattheyfoundproblematic.Then, a service provider meeting applied available information from newcomers’ consultations. A special task ofthecommunityadvisorypanelwastoredefineandreconstructprioritiesandareasofcommunitydevel­opment orienting to build up a new strategic plan (The North York…2013). Figure 1: LIP Multilevel Governance Structure focused on sub-regional LIPs in Toronto. Figure 2: North York East LIP strategic planning process (adapted from The North York…2013). Figure 3: Locality development model as an example of the semi-independent system. Table 1: North York East Service Analysis (selected categories) (adapted from The North York…2013 and Kobayashi et al. 2012). Categories Newcomer & service Area assets & strengths Service gaps & areas for providers’ experience improvement Labour and business • lack of working experience • employment agencies located • structural barriers for newcomers’ • fewer quality jobs within within the community employment the community • inclusion in co-decision-making • lack of assessment of immigrant skills Education and youth • no information about Canadian • full-day kindergarten schools • limited information in schools school culture • preschool training for parents • strict eligibility criteria for subsidies • financial problems for extra-curriculum activities Health • limitation in access to services • nearby health services • communication barriers due • additional fees for some services • information about services to different languages • stigmatization due to mental health problems 4 Social planning in the Slovenian context Somecivilgroupsorganizedpetitionsinfavorandagainstapotentialimmigrantsettlement–particularly, concerning the establishment of accommodation centers (Rijavec and Pevcin 2018). Accordingly, there have been many conflictual relations between municipalities and government concerning major respon­sibilitiesalthoughthestateformallyprovidedamajorshareofpublicservicesrecourses.Inreality,therole ofmunicipalitiesintheintegrationprocesshasbeenminimizedasmuchaspossible.Combiningdatagiven fromtheCitiesofMigrationdiagnostictool(measuringinclusioninLjubljana)andMipex(detectinginte­gration in Slovenia) the following matrix shows that health issue is the most critical policy in multilevel joint action. The Ljubljana municipality has supported major national policy initiatives under its jurisdiction. Integration policy has been a continuation of the state policy with some limited cooperation with non­governmental actors and the state (Interviews 2018) It needs to be highlighted that in terms of the national legislation newcomer workers still face many breaches. Specifically, in the city of Ljubljana, there have been some innovative ideas on how to include politicalrefugees,forinstance,toformakindofamulti-ethnicbusiness(e.g.»Skuhna«restaurant).Despite several successful attempts to start ethnic businesses the question always remains, as to how to continue when public funding is over (Interviews 2018). Table 2: State capacity of immigrant integration (measuring with Mipex) vs. municipal (city) inclusion policies (measuring with Cities of Migration online diagnostic tool). Cities of Migration 2018 (Ljubljana) Mipex 2014 (Slovenia) Labour Education Health Halfway favorable Slightly unfavorable Unfavorable Labour Intentional XXX Education Strategic XXXX Health Awareness X Overall index Intentional Overall index Halfway favorable XXX LEGEND: Mipex scale: 80–100 – favorable, 60–79 – slightly favorable, 41–59 – halfway favorable, 21–40 – slightly unfavourable, 1–20 – unfavorable, 0 – critically unfavorable. Cities of Migration scale (arithmetic mean): 80–100% – inclusive, 60–79% – strategic, 40–59% – intentional, 20–39% – awarenes, 0–19% – invisible. Matrix (level of cooperation): xxxxx highly cooperative, xxxx cooperative, xxx middle cooperative, xx little cooperative, x non-cooperative. NOTE: Percentages given by respondents were translated into scales (different ones for Mipex and MyCom). Table 3: Excerpts from interviews (2018) indicating the most acute issues (and positive aspects) of immigrant integration in Ljubljana municipality. Categories Newcomer and service Area assets and strengths Service gaps and areas providers’ experience for improvement Workplace integration • Hiring workers through working • Employment workshops • Improved target support for the employment agencies • Support of employment agency recognition of working skills • Limited legal protection • Mentoring programs for new entrepreneurs Education, children and youth • Language barriers between • Language training for immigrant • Higher financial stimulation parents and teachers children parents for teachers • Shortage of extra-curriculum • Two-stage model of integration • Developing approaches to activities understand diversity Health • Only emergency treatment • Vicinity of some health services • The need for translators for asylum seekers • Clinic for individuals without • Specific intercultural education • Out-of-pocket payments health insurance for workers for some chronic disease AsfarastheSlovenianeducationalsystemgoes,itstilldoesnotfullymeetmulticulturalcriteria.Some basicpolicydirectiveshavebeenacceptedatthenationallevelarrangingyouthintegrationintotheschool system.Forexample,Ljubljana’selementaryschoolLivadahashadaprominenthistoryinimmigrantchil­dren’sintegration.Themunicipalityalsosupportsaprojectarranginginformationandeducationalactivities for immigrant youth (Interviews 2018). Althoughthestateassuredbasichealthcareservicesasystemicapproachtotheissuewasmissing.Some veryfundamentalproceduralshortcomingswereidentified:limitedaccesstodoctorsandinterculturalbar­riers. Above all, medical personnel often did not recognize the equal health rights for persons holding international protection (Interviews 2018). 5 Comparative multilevel analysis Canada is still positioned among the countries which have carried out the most notable practices of inte­gration (see figure 5). The Canadian integration policy has not radically changed between 2008 and 2014. Comparatively, according to the Mipex index Slovenia did not achieve the results of most western demo­cratic states. FollowinganalysisofvariousLIPsacrossOntario,mentoringprogramsandinternshipsseemedimpor­tanttoimmigrantsusingmoreeffectivelytheireducationalcredentials(Kobayashietal.2012).Atthefederal level, permanent residents, reunited families and some temporary workers enjoy some of the best labor market opportunities in the developed world (Huddleston et al. 2015). In the case of Slovenia, in some parts of the private sector, non-EU immigrants have often had difficulties to access jobs in this sector (Huddleston et al. 2015). These issues are mostly related to the bureaucratic barriers in the employment process (Interviews 2018). The overall score of immigrant access to education in Canada is lower than in comparable countries, mostly since only a minority of programs offer immigrants equal access to higher and university educa­tionandtovocationaltraining(Huddlestonetal.2015).TheLIPsanalysissuggestedthatimmigrantswould need better coordination of education services (Kobayashi et al. 2012). The Slovenian school system has reactedslowlytothespecialneedsofthenewcomers–e.g.,therewasnospecializedcenterofferingexpert services (Huddleston et al. 2015). While most interviewees put educational integration very high among other policy groups, Slovenian data show low indexes of integration (Interviews 2018). Important shortcomings in health integration as an unresponsive healthcare system to immigrants’ needs are evident in Canada (Huddleston et al. 2015). Cross-sectional LIPs analysis mainly suggested the removalofsystemicbarriersapproachingmentalhealthservices,(Kobayashietal.2012).Canadalagsbehind somecountriesasAustralia,NewZealand,USAortheUnitedKingdom(Huddlestonetal.2015).Slovenia obviously does almost nothing to integrate and orient newcomer patients into the health system and to address any of their specific health needs (Huddleston et al. 2015). As specifically expressed in Slovenian Table 4: Parameters measuring labor market integration (calculated Mipex index: source of database: Huddleston et al. 2015). Indicators Access to general labor market Access to general support Targeted support Workers’ rights Labor market mobility (overall index) Canada (2007) Canada (2014) Slovenia (2007) Slovenia (2014) EU 25 (2007) EU 28 (2014) 90 90 30 30 56 61 58 83 42 50 55 62 50 50 10 20 29 36 100 100 50 50 69 71 75 81 33 38 52 57 Table 5: Parameters measuring education opportunities (calculated Mipex index: source of database: Huddleston et al. 2015) Indicators Access to education Targeting needs New opportunities Intercultural education Education (overall index) Canada (2010) Canada (2014) Slovenia (2007) Slovenia (2014) EU 25 (2007) EU 28 (2014) 50 50 N/A 33 42 34 80 80 N/A 17 90 47 60 60 N/A 15 80 23 70 70 N/A 40 80 43 65 65 N/A 26 73 37 Figure 7: Square area gives comparison of Canada and Slovenia (different policy groups) (calculated Mipex index: source of database: Huddleston et al. 2015). The figure presents the overall calculated Mipex index for Slovenia and Canada by various policy groups. The overall score inside every policy is100pointsasthemaximumandshowstheratiobetweenSloveniaandCanada. Forexample,withinsectionhealthCanadareaches80points,Slovenia only 20 points. Table 6: Parameters measuring overall scores (calculated Mipex index: source of database: Huddleston et al. 2015). Country Year Overall score Canada 2014 70 2013 71 2012 71 2011 71 2010 71 Slovenia 2014 48 2013 49 2012 49 2011 49 2010 48 EU 28 2014 52 2013 52 interviews, there has been no organized training of medical personnel and doctors for improving com­municationwithnewcomersandunderstandingtheirspecificculturalneedsinmedicaltreatment.Inmany cases, merely NGOs are those who offer translators and mediators in these activities (Interviews 2018). The Canadian federal integration policy has largely reflected local characteristics. In Slovenia, inco­herent national policy without a long-term vision resulted in individual local social action experiments lackingsignificantjointeffectsonalllevelsofpolicy-making.Putsimply,theshortcomingofseriousimmi-grant integration national program/strategy mainly corresponds with a lower level of the Mipex index. ThefinalcomparisonoftheoverallMipexindexshowsthatCanadianintegrationpolicyonthenation­al level has been far more successful than Slovenian. The general score for years 2014/2015 indicates that theoverallEUmembers’integrationpolicyismorerestrictivethanintheCanadiancase.Thismaybepar­tially explained also by geopolitical reasons. 6 Conclusion Therearecertainlysignificantcorrelationsbetweenpathsofcommunitydevelopmentandlevelsofimmi­grant integration. Canada demonstrates higher integration potential using the so-called capacity development approach allowing local communities to carry out the implementation of integration poli­cies. The Slovenian restrictive national policy without a coherent integration approach is reflected in the conventional social policy planning development model. EducationalpolicyinSloveniahasbeencaughtbetweenlowerMipexindexesandmorepositiveinter­viewee opinion. We can agree that the Slovenian educational system quickly corresponds with changes in immigrant integration patterns. In both countries, healthcare integration is the most acute issue among policy groups compared. We could argue that intercultural barriers represent the most important future challenges for policy-makers. Inside the Canadian debate, integration provides different social/spatial relations than assimilation. Using integration logic, communities may be integrated based on joint values and are less caught up in ghettoization. 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