ACTA CARSOLOGICA ISSN 0583-6050 © ZNANSTVENORAZISKOVALNI CENTER SAZU Uredniški odbor / Editorial Board Franco Cucchi, University of Trieste, Italy Jože Čar, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Franci Gabrovšek, Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU, Slovenia Ivan Gams, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Matija Gogala, Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Slovenia Andrej Kranjc, Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU, Slovenia Marcel Lalkovič, Te Slovak Muesum of Nature Protection and Speleology Jean Nicod, Emeritus Professor, Geographical Institute, Aix en Provence, France Mario Pleničar, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Trevor R. Shaw, Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU, Slovenia Tadej Slabe, Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU, Slovenia Glavni in odgovorni urednik / Editor Andrej Kranjc Pomočnik urednika / Co-Editor in Chief Franci Gabrovšek Znanstveni svet / Advisory Board Ilona Bárány – Kevei, Pavel Bosák, Arrigo A. Cigna, Wolfgang Dreybrodt, Derek Ford, Helen Goldie, Laszlo Kiraly, Alexander Klimchouk, Stein-Erik Lauritzen, Bogdan Onac, Osborne Armstrong, Arthur Palmer, Ugo Sauro, Boris Sket, Kazuko Urushibara-Yoshino. Naslov uredništva / Editor’s address: Inštitut za raziskovanje krasa ZRC SAZU - Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU SI - 6230 Postojna, Titov trg 2, Slovenija Fax: +386 (0)5 700 19 99, e-mail: kranjc@zrc-sazu.si Spletni naslov / Web address: http://carsologica.zrc-sazu.si Distribucija in prodaja / Ordering address: Založba ZRC/ZRC Publishing Novi trg 2, P.O.Box 306, SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia Fax: +386 (0)1 425 77 94, e-mail: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si, http://zalozba.zrc-sazu.si Sprejeto na seji I V. razreda SAZU dne 31. marca 2006 in na seji predsedstva SAZU 13. junija 2006 Cover photo: Caver in the stream of Ferranova Buža cave, Central Slovenia. See article by M. Staut and P. Auersperger (photo by Peter Gedei). Cena / Price Posamezni izvod / Single Issue Individual / Posameznik: 3.559 SIT / 15 € Institutional / Institucija: 5.990 SIT / 25 € Letna naročnina / Annual Subscription Individual / Posameznik: 5.990 SIT / 25 € Institutional / Institucija: 9.585 SIT / 40 € ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 2006 SLOVENSKA AKADEMIJA ZNANOSTI IN UMETNOSTI ACADEMIA SCIENTIARUM ET ARTIUM SLOVENICA Razred za naravoslovne vede – Classis IV: Historia naturalis ZNANSTVENORAZISKOVALNI CENTER SAZU Inštitut za raziskovanje krasa – Institutum carsologicum LJUBLJANA 2006 let / yEARS Znanstveno Raziskovalni Center Slovenske akademije znanosti in umetnosti SCiENtifiC RESEARCh CENtRE Of thE SlOvENiAN ACAdEmy Of SCiENCES ANd ARtS ACTA CARSOLOGICA je vključena v / is included into: Index to Scientifc & Technical Proceedings (ISTP, Philadelphia) / Index to Social Sciences & Humanities Proceedings (ISSHP, Philadelphia) / Ulrich's Periodicals Directory / COS GeoRef / BIOSIS Zoological Record. ACTA CARSOLOGICA izhaja s fnančno pomočjo / is published with the fnancial support of: Agencije za raziskovalno dejavnost RS / Slovenian Research Agency in / and Slovenske nacionalne komisije za UNESCO / Slovenian National Commission for UNESCO. ACTA CARSOLOGICA * VOLUME / LETNIK35. NUMBER / ŠTEVILKA 2. 2006 CONTENTS VSEBINA PAPERS ČlANKi Elery hAmiltON-Smith 5 SPATIAL PLANNING AND PROTECTION MEASURES FOR KARST AREAS PROStORSKO NAČRtOvANJE iN UKREPi Z AŠČitE NA KRAŠKih OBmOČJih Neven BOČić, Aleksandar lUKić & vuk tvrtko OPAČić 13 MANAGEMENT MODELS AND DEVELOPMENT OF SHOw CAVES AS TOURIST DESTINATIONS IN CROATIA mOdEli UPRAvlJANJA iN RAZvOJA tURiStiČNih JAm KOt tURiStiČNih CilJEv NA hRvAŠKEm mélanie dUvAl 23 TOURISM AND PRESERVATION POLICIES IN KARST AREAS: COMPARISON BETwEEN THE ŠKOCJAN CAVES (SLOVENIJA) AND THE ARDECHE GORGE (FRANCE) tURiZEm iN OhRANJANJE KRAŠKEGA SvEtA: PRimERJAvA mEd ŠKOCJANSKimi JAmAmi (SlOvENiJA) iN SOtESKO ARdEChE (fRANCiJA) Christophe GAUChON, Estelle PlOyON, Jean-Jacques dElANNOy, Sébastien hACqUARd, fabien hOBléA, Stéphane JAillEt, yves PERREttE 37 THE CONCEPTS OF HERITAGE AND HERITAGE RESOURCE APPLIED TO KARSTS: PROTECTING THE CHORANCHE CAVES (VERCORS, FRANCE) ZAmiSli O dEdiŠČiNi iN NJENih viRih PRiREJENih ZA KRAS: vAROvANJE JAm ChORANChE (vERCORS, fRANCiJA) fabiana CAlo & mario PARiSE 47 EVALUATING THE HUMAN DISTURBANCE TO KARST ENVIRONMENTS IN SOUTHERN ITALY OCENJEvANJE SPREmEmB KRAŠKEGA OKOlJA ZARAdi vPlivA ČlOvEKA v JUŽNi itAliJi Ugo SAURO 57 CHANGES IN THE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND HUMAN IMPACT IN THE KARST ENVIRONMENT OF THE VENETIAN PREALPS (ITALY) SPREmEmBE v iZKORiŠČANJU NARAvNih viROv iN vPliv ČlOvEKA NA KRAŠKO OKOlJE v BENEŠKih PREdAlPAh (itAliJA) ivana fiStANić 65 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF BRACKISH KARST SPRING PANTAN (CROATIA) tRAJNOStNO UPRAvlJANJE BRAKiČNEGA KRAŠKEGA iZviRA PANtAN (hRvAŠKA) Nataša RAvBAR & Gregor KOvAČiČ 73 KARST wATER MANAGEMENT IN SLOVENIA IN THE FRAME OF VULNERABILITY MAPPING UPRAvlJANJE S KRAŠKimi vOdAmi v SlOvENiJi v OKviRU KARtiRANJA OBČUtlJivOSti miha StAUt & Primož AUERSPERGER 83 TRACING OF THE STREAM FLOwING THROUGH THE CAVE FERRANOVA BUžA, CENTRAL SLOVENIA SlEdENJE POtOKA v JAmi fERRANOvA BUŽA NAd vRhNiKO Janja KOGOvŠEK & metka PEtRiČ 91 TRACER TEST ON THE MALA GORA LANDFILL NEAR RIBNICA IN SOUTH-EASTERN SLOVENIA SlEdilNi POSKUS NA OdlAGAliŠČU mAlA GORA PRi RiBNiCi v JUGOvZhOdNi SlOvENiJi martin KNEZ & tadej SlABE 103 DOLENJSKA SUBSOIL STONE FORESTS AND OTHER KARST PHENOMENA DISCOVERED DURING THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HRASTJE – LEŠNICA MOTORwAY SECTION (SLOVENIA) dOlENJSKi POdtAlNi KAmNiti GOZdOvi iN dRUGi KRAŠKi POJAvi, OdKRiti PRi GRAdNJi AvtOCEStNEGA OdSEKA hRAStJE – lEŠNiCA Aleksander KlimChOUK, Serdar BAyARi, lüfi NAZiK & Koraj töRK 111 GLACIAL DESTRUCTION OF CAVE SYSTEMS IN HIGH MOUNTAINS, wITH A SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE ALADAGLAR MASSIF, CENTRAL TAURUS, TURKEY lEdENiŠKO UNiČENJE viSOKOGORSKih JAmSKih SiStEmOv: PRimER mASivA AlAdAGlAR, CENtRAlNi tAURUS, tURČiJA Bonnie A. B. BlACKwEll 123 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE (ESR) DATING IN KARST ENVIRONMENTS dOlOČANJE StAROSti v KRASU S POmOČJO ElEKtRONSKE SPiNSKE RESONANCE (ESR) Stephan KEmPE, hans-Peter hUBRiCh & Klaus SUCKStORff 155 THE HISTORY OF POSTOJNSKA JAMA: THE 1748 JOSEPH ANTON NAGEL INSCRIPTIONS IN JAMA NEAR PREDJAMA AND POSTOJNSKA JAMA ZGOdOviNA POStOJNSKE JAmE: NAGlOv NAPiS v JAmi PRi PREdJAmi iN POStOJNSKi JAmi iZ 1748 Andrej KRANJC 163 BALTAZAR HACqUET (1739/40-1815), THE PIONEER OF KARST GEOMORPHOLOGISTS BAltAZAR hACqUEt (1739/40-1815), PiONiR v GEOmORfOlOGiJi KRASA COMMENTS ODMEVI Nada PRAPROtNiK 169 KAREL DEžMAN IS NOT FORGOTTEN REPORTS POROčILA luiz Eduardo Panisset tRAvASSOS, heinz ChARlES KOhlER & Andrej KRANJC 170 THE 6th SINAGEO AND THE INSERTION OF THE KARST GEOMORPHOLOGY THEMATIC SESSION Andrej KRANJC 172 THE LONGEST HISTORY OF AN ICE CAVE – UNDER URAL? franci GABROvŠEK 174 ESSENTIAL SOURCES IN CAVE SCIENCE COBISS: 1.01 SPATIAL PLANNING AND PROTECTION MEASURES FOR KARST AREAS PROSTORSKO NAčRTOVANJE IN UKREPI ZAŠčITE NA KRAŠKIH OBMOčJIH Elery HAMILTON-SMITH1 Abstract UDC 551.444:504.054 Elery Hamilton-Smith: Spatial planning and protection measures for Karst areas Tis paper presents a brief review of the values and vulnerability of karst systems, and specifcally examines issues of water balance, physical destruction, sedimentation and pollution. It then outlines key issues in the protection of karst and the need for continuing vigilance. keywords: karst, management, groundwater balance, vulnerability, protection. Izvleček UDK 551.444:504.055 Elery Hamilton-Smith: Prostorsko načrtovanje in ukrepi zaščite na kraških območjih članek prestavi kratek pregled vrednot in ranljivosti kraških sistemov. Posebej se osredotoči na vprašanja vodnega ravnotežja, fzičnega uničevanja, sedimentacije in onesnaževanja. Predstavi temeljne probleme pri zaščiti krasa in opozori na potrebo po budnem spremljanju posegov v kras. ključne besede: kras, upravljanje, ravnotežje podzemne vode, ranljivost, zaščita. INTRODUCTION a karst system incorporating component landforms as well as life, energy, water, gases, soils and bedrock . . . (Eberhard 1994: 8.) Any discussion of karst protection must commence with the basic understanding that karst is a complex, dynamic and interactive system. An overall view of karst must engage with that complexity, and so call upon a wide range of insights from a diversity of disciplines. It calls for application of what is usually termed integrated systems analysis. Tis was probably frst well recognised in the karst literature by Yuan Daoxian (1988) in his keynote address to the Congress of the International Association of Hydrology. My own experience over many years has been based in this approach – which is now generally accepted, although some scholars still maintain a narrow disciplinary perspective. In this paper, I will focus particularly upon protective management but this frst demands an introductory perspective on the values and vulnerability of karst. 1 Charles Sturt University, N.S.w., Chair, IUCN / wCPA Task Force on Caves and Karst, P.O. Box 36, Carlton South, Vict. 3053, Australia, e-mail: elery@alphalink.com.au Received/Prejeto: 05.10.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2, 5–11, LJUBLJANA 2006 ELERY HAMILTON-SMITH COMMENTING UPON KARST VALUES Many karst systems are places of striking, even sublime beauty (Burke 1756). In turn this is coupled, for many people, with a genuine sense of spirituality. Most such landscapes thus have extremely important cultural values that may even have persisted continually since the Neolithic. fig. 1: Te famous towerkarst of Guilin in China is famed for its beauty In turn, cultural values are linked with a great diversity of scientifc values in the common claim that Caves are the Books in the library of the history of the Earth, even though we are still striving to fully understand the languages of those books. Te very way in which evidence of the past is interwoven within karst echoes both the complexity and integration of the karst system itself, and in so doing, potentially adds a further layer of integration to our understandings. So, karst provides a unique store of knowledge with many features not found in other earth systems. Finally, there is a wondrous range of economic assets in karst, of which the most signifcant must be the groundwater reservoirs, which probably provide for the water needs of at least 25% of the world population. Regrettably, the importance of maintaining the quality and quantity of groundwater is all too ofen overlooked in the greed for more highly priced and spectacular commodities such as the limestone itself or even the swiflet nests of Southeast Asia. (watson et al., 1997) AND UPON VULNERABILITY Te same complexity and integration of karst, in itself, underlies the vulnerability of the system. A change in any of the major components of the system will inevitably impact upon others. Given that water is the most basic yet most variable of the major components, it is the one most likely to be subject to either changes in volume or to pollution of various kinds. Tus, it is also the most important element in almost any protective management program. However, the very attractiveness of karst brings with it the impact of human developments with dams, roads, bridges and other constructions. Ten the quality of many karst soils or other products of economic value brings both extractive or developmental industries and urbanization, so as a result, both destruction of the rock Itself and ofen the introduction of pollutants, either as waste products or in the name of chemical management practices, e.g., fertilizers and pesticides. So, we know we must look towards sustainability, but in practice this may be very difcult and very slow to develop. Te Shui people of China have published a text on sustainability over a thousand years ago, and have managed their forest and karst lands at Maolan for at least that long. But more generally, the dominance of simplistic economic thinking (and greed) ofen defeats the demand for sustainability. Contemporary modernism in resource management was initiated by March (1864) in his rightly famous man and Nature. But far too much of his wisdom still awaits full expression (e.g., Goldie et al., 2005). MAINTAINING THE wATER BALANCE Te centrality of water as a major determinant of the character and integrity of karst has already been emphasised. Natural variations in water as a result of food-ing, increased rainfall, or drought may all arise, and are largely self-balancing over time. But because the cycles of nature may well be gradual in change, we ofen neglect the potential of permanent change. Te process of desertifcation has adequately demonstrated its capacity ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 6 SPATIAL PLANNING AND PROTECTION MEASURES OR KARST AREAS fig. 2: temple of Baal, Jenolan Caves, New South wales for permanency, and although there is no question that it can be reversed and so restoration may be possible, it is all too rarely attempted. Te widespread karst deserts of China are well known, but current research is furthering our understanding of the processes at work, including the formerly neglected role of microbiota. But the major threat comes from human action. Excessive drawdown of groundwater for agriculture, mining or other industrial activities is all too common. Urbanisation and other forms of construction may well cause major changes in groundwater re-charge. Forests may both impede recharge and increase drawdown through transpiration. Planning to reduce damage to water balance is vital, and should always be based in accurate delineation of total catchments. It has been recognised for many years that subterranean divides may not coincide with surface catchments. But many protected areas sufer from boundaries that were established in ignorance or neglect of this understanding. Even when the problem is recognised, the political considerations in boundary change may well demand many years of negotiation, and may well prevent re-defnition. Regrettably, even conservation activists may well lack proper understanding of the character and behavior of groundwater. One striking example from this region fig. 3: Groundwater is of great value, but ofen adds to the beauty of caves: weebubbie Cave, Nullarbor Plain, western Australia (Photograph Normal Poulter, OAm) occurred when Croatia frst proposed a change of boundary of the Plitvice Lakes world Heritage area in order to encompass (and hence control) the upper section of the catchment area. Many of the referees who were consulted totally failed to recognise the importance of this and argued that the world Heritage Committee should reject the proposal because “it did not add to the biodiversity of fig. 4: Khayon Cave, near mawlamyine, myanmar (once known as farm Cave and an important biological site) is a fne example of the religious use of caves the site” Fortunately, the Committee recognised and accepted the total validity of the proposal that afer all was simply putting the case for total catchment management – now a widely accepted principle in karst management. Another recent development is taking place in Indonesia where the special province of Yogyakarta is undertaking the revegetation and restoration of the Gunung Sewu - one of the world’s great tropical karst areas which has been devastated by both total denudation through logging and by uncontrolled limestone quarrying. Research by Professor Suhardi to develop optimal sequencing and timing of re-vegetation and his leadership in implemen- ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 ELERY HAMILTON-SMITH tation are achieving remarkable results, unprecedented in tropical karsts. Further, his work is now providing a model for other countries with similar problems, albeit ofen on a less scale, now using his strategies to achieve their own successes So, in summary, we must strive for total catchment management and on-going monitoring of recharge or of drawdown. Te importance of deliberative environmental restoration is at last being recognised, even though Marsh argued back in 1864 that forests destroyed by human action need human action to ensure their recovery. fig. 5: One of the examples of sublime majesty: the Xiaozhai tiankeng of China Te establishment of protected areas is the most obvious and best-known strategy for protecting natural or cultural resources. Tese are ofen established under relevant legislation with such names as national parks, nature reserves, etc. Te IUCN has established a standard classif-cation of these (IUCN 1994, Bishop et al 2004) according to the nature and extent of protection that is aforded. Others may exist by long-standing tradition for as long as many thousands of years; still others are established and managed under private commercial ownership. Te underlying assumptions and managerial styles in protected areas have been undergoing a continuing evolutionary development and adaptation. Te famous “Yellowstone Model”, was long promoted by the United States as the ideal model for protected area management, but has come under massive challenge by alternative models from Eastern Europe, other cultural traditions and in particular from many new countries. Adrian Phillips (2003) at the Durban Parks Congress provided a magnifcent summary of the patterns of change and Hamilton-Smith (2005) provided a further overview fig. 6: Another majestic sight: Nare doline (over 300 m. deep) on the Nakanai Plateau, Papua New Guinea which incorporated and commented upon Phillips’ summary of changes. Another important contribution from the Durban Congress was a magnificent discussion paper on governance principles for protected areas prepared by the Canadian Institute of Governance (Graham et al 2003). More vexed questions arise in respect to areas that are not accorded protected area status. Ofen, politicians, and other public ofcials, exercising Bierce’s (1911: 243) defnition of politics as “the conduct of public afairs for private advantage” will hand over major areas for destructive exploitation. In some countries there is little legislative infrastructure to provide a degree of control over the use of either public or private. Even where there is, conservationists may fnd themselves forced to appeal against decisions already made – and this can be a difcult and ofen costly process. A further mechanism that seeks to provide for safer decision-making is the Precautionary Principle (Cooney 2004, Cooney et al 2004), enunciated clearly in the decisions of the 1992 Rio Declaration: PREVENTING DESTRUCTION 8 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 SPATIAL PLANNING AND PROTECTION MEASURES OR KARST AREAS where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientifc certainly shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-efective measures to prevent environmental degradation. I am glad to say that afer two days in the witness box in the course of challenging an application for mining on a particularly important karst area, the judge not fig. 7: One page from the library of the history of the Earth: victoria fossil Cave, Naracoorte Caves whA, Australia fig. 8: Gouldens hole - One of the Cenotes in the limestone Coast region, South Australia: both a beautiful place and a point of access to an immense groundwater reservoir through both the nineteenth century excavated ramp and the modern pumping station (Photograph Ken Grimes) fig. 9: Te bat fight from deer Cave, Gunung mulu whA, malaysia only upheld the appeal, but also wrote the precautionary principle into his judgment. Tere is also the potential for adoption of minimal impact codes of practice. Speleologists have used such codes in various forms, e.g., the Honour Code of the Swiss Speleological Society and the Minimum Impact Code of the Australian Speleological Federation. At the other extreme of scale there is an excellent example in the Cement Sustainability Initiative (wBCSD 2002). fig. 10: Te terraces on the Northern side of the huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea are a wondrous source of geo-climatic history fig. 11: Buchan Caves, victoria, preserved as a National Park, now Caves Reserve. (1938 photograph made available by Park manager d. Calnin) ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 9 ELERY HAMILTON-SMITH POLLUTION AND SEDIMENTATION Both pollution and sedimentation share the characteristic that they can spread over an immense area, sometimes reaching locations that may be hundreds of miles from the point of origin. Tey may result from ignorance, laziness, cost cutting, genuine accident, unforeseen consequences, and inappropriate use of agricultural or other chemicals. Pollution may well be invisible as when excessive organic wastes are discharged and enter the ground-water, creating a high level of nitrates that may be fatal to infants or young children. Sedimentation can result from any form of soil erosion or mobilization. In New Zealand, the waitomo Glowworm cave was threatened when a farmer cleared a hillside some 25 miles upstream of the cave. Te result- fig. 12: Te wonderful maolan forest of China, managed on a basis of sustainability by the Shui people fig. 13: Te havalu forest of Niue managed as a “National Park” since the original inhabitants frst arrived over 1,000 years ago. ing muddy run-of entered the river and progressively settled, killing the Chironomid and other larvae which were growing all along the river and which normally provide the food source of the glowworms. In Vietnam, a clumsy road construction mobilized immense amounts of mud into several underground rivers and from there to the major surface streams draining the karst. fig. 14: Te main pathway through Jeita Cave, suspended well above the foor on pillars, and with all electric fttings concealed under the pathway Most examples of both pollution and sedimentation can be prevented or remedied but it is much less costly to prevent either or both occurring. It may be useful to note here that the South-east Asian grass vetiver zizanioi-des provides a remarkable tool in controlling water run-of and in stabilising disturbed soils (whitten et al 1997: 144-146). fig. 15: Te commencement of the medical plants trail at Gunung mulu whA, malaysia fig. 16: Te beauty of the Plitvice lakes whA, Croatia 10 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 SPATIAL PLANNING AND PROTECTION MEASURES OR KARST AREAS CONTINUING VIGILANCE It is absolutely vital that land managers do not become complacent, and rather maintain continuing vigilance, as there will always be stupidity, greed and irresponsibility. But there are two other special hazards: • Te introduction of new and hence little known chemicals or other technology. My personal experience in discovering (by accident) that Metamidophos was being used as a mass pesticide in an Australian karst area is one frightening example. • Ten there are time bombs that will one day explode. Te worst example of which I am aware is the massive water storage built when gold mining commenced in South Africa over 100 years ago. when it was built on dolomite, everybody knew that dolomite was insol- Bierce, A., 1911: Te Devil’s Dictionary, Neale Publishing, USA.- [My copy from London: Te Folio Society, 2003.] Bishop, K., Dudley,N., & S. Stolton,2004: Speaking a Common Language.-Cardif University, IUCN and the world Conservation Monitoring Centre. Burke, E.,1756: A Philosophical Inquiry into the origin of our ideas of the sublime and the beautiful.- Te Harvard Classics, 1969, 62nd printing. Cooney, R., 2004: Te Precautionary Principle in Biodiversity Conservation and Natural Resource Management.- IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Cooney, R. et al. 2004: Managing Uncertainty: Risk and the Precautionary Principle in Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Use.- Dare Es Salaam, Tanzania workshop Report from the Global Diversity Forum. Eberhard, R., 1994: Inventory and Management of the Junee River Karst System, Tasmania.- Hobart, Tas. : Forestry Tasmania. Goldie, J., Douglas,B., & B. Furnass, 2005: In Search of Sustainability.- Collingwood, Victoria: CSIERO Publishing. Graham, J., Amos, B., & T. Pluptre, 2003: Governance Principles for Protected Areas in the 21st Century.-Ottawa: Institute on Governance. uble in water. More recently a few geologists started to sound a warning – they were ignored. Ten about three or four years ago, the water escaped into the underlying limestones, and then arose through the abandoned mine shafs, bringing an unbelievably dangerous chemical soup to the surface. At present, the government vacillates between ‘it hasn’t happened, but if it did, it isn’t dangerous and we have it all under control’. Te result is that it has proved virtually impossible to get any genuine response in place – not surprising when one thinks of the magnitude of the disaster and the ducking for cover of the government response! • what others might be awaiting attention elsewhere in the world? Hamilton-Smith, E. 2005: Reviewing Changes in Nature Conservation.- Australasian Cave and Karst Management Association Journal, 60: 32-3 6. IUCN, 1994: Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories.- IUCN, Gland Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. Marsh, G. P. , 1864: Man and Nature, or, Physical Geography as Modifed by Human Action.- Harvard University Press, 1998. Phillips, A., 2003: Turning Ideas on Teir Head: Te New Paradigm for Protected Areas.-Background Paper, world Parks Congress, Durban. watson, J., E. Hamilton-Smith, Gillieson,D., & K. Kier-nan. 1997: Guidelines for Cave and Karst Protection.- IUCN, Gland Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. whitten, T., Soeriaatmadja,R.E., & A.A. Suraya, 1997: Te Ecology of Java and Bali.- Oxford University Press. world Business Council for Sustainable Development (wBCSD) 2002: Te Cement Sustainability Initiative. Daoxian,Y., 1988: On the Karst Environmental System. Proceedings of the IAH 21st Congress, XXI (1): 30-46. REFERENCES ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 11 COBISS: 1.01 MANAGEMENT MODELS AND DEVELOPMENT OF SHOw CAVES AS TOURIST DESTINATIONS IN CROATIA MODELI UPRAVLJANJA IN RAZVOJA TURISTIčNIH JAM KOT TURISTIčNIH CILJEV NA HRVAŠKEM Neven BOčIć1, Aleksandar LUKIć1 & Vuk Tvrtko OPAčIć1 Abstract UDC 551.44:338.48 (497.5) 65.012.43 (497.5):551.44 Neven Bočić, Aleksandar Lukić & Vuk Tvrtko Opačić: Management Models and Development of Show Caves as Tourist Destinations in Croatia Touristic valorisation of caves has long tradition in Croatia. Research has been conducted in order to: identify show caves in Croatia (13), make an overview of their basic geomorpho-logic characteristics and study their role as tourist destinations. Based on Nature Protection Law and current experiences, four diferent management models have been identifed. Management models have been recognized as an important factor for touristic valorisation of show caves. Tese elements as well as linkages of show caves with local economy have been examined in more details in case studies. Paper concludes with overview on current tourist development of show caves in Croatia and proposes some future actions in that respect. keywords: show cave, management model, tourist destination, local economy, sustainable development, Croatia. Izvleček UDK 551.44:338.48 (497.5) 65.012.43 (497.5):551.44 Neven Bočić, Aleksandar Lukić & Vuk Tvrtko Opačić: Modeli upravljanja in razvoja turističnih jam kot turističnih ciljev na Hrvaškem Turistično vrednotenje jam ima na Hrvaškem že dolgo tradicijo. Raziskava je želela sledeče: identifcirati turistične jame na Hrvaškem (13), napraviti pregled njihovih geomorfoloških značilnosti in preučiti vlogo jam kot turističnih ciljev. Temelječ na Zakonu o varstvu narave in na izkušnjah so bili ugotovljeni štirje modeli upravljanja. Ti so bili spoznani za pomembne dejavnike pri turistični oceni turističnih jam. Tako te sestavine kot tudi povezava turističnih jam s krajevnim gospodarstvom so bili podrobno preučeni v tem prispevku. članek sklene pregled tekočega turističnega razvoja jam na Hrvaškem in predlaga na tej osnovi nekaj bodočih ukrepov. ključne besede: turistična jama, model upravljanja, turistični cilj, krajevno gospodarstvo, trajnostni razvoj, Hrvaška. INTRODUCTION Speleological features as special natural phenomena in karst make the components of tourist attraction basis (Kušen, 2002). Te caves having geomorphologic, geological, biological, archaeological, paleontological, landscape and/or other signifcances, can be touristically valorised. People visit caves out of aesthetic-emotional, recreational, educative and sometimes medical reasons. Speleological phenomena can be touristically valorised in several fundamental ways. Classical tourist cave arrangement is the most ofen. It implies accommodation of a cave and its surroundings to a visitor, who has no experience in walking in the country and by caves (Cigna & Buri, 2000). Tradition of tourist cave valorisation is long in Croatia (Božić, 1984). Gospodska špilja near 1 Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Marulićev trg 19, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia e-mail: nbocic@geog.pmf.hr ; alukic@geog.pmf.hr ; vtopacic@geog.pmf.hr Received/Prejeto: 15.09.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2, 13–21, LJUBLJANA 2006 NEVEN BOčIć, ALEKSANDAR LUKIć & VUK TVRTKO OPAčIć the source of the river Cetina can be considered the frst touristically arranged cave. It was arranged for organised visits as early as 1855. Te longest tradition belongs to the Modra špilja on the island of Biševo (visited since 1884) and the Gornja Baraćeva cave near Rakovica, frst arranged in 1892, and reopened in 2003. Te research purpose is to state, on the basis of standard criteria, which speleological features in Croatia are included in the cat- Te frst task was to defne the notion of a tourist cave on the basis of previous domestic and foreign experiences and to single out such phenomena in Croatia (Cigna & Buri, 2000; Božić, 1999). Dealing with the defned tourist caves we had to collect the data about: their location, total length, length of the touristically arranged path, year of the frst opening, number of visits, way of management and protection category. On the basis of the collected data, especially about the management of a show caves, four case studies have been worked out. Besides Nature protection in Croatia depends largely on laws and regulations, which are passed not only to preserve natural resources from exploitation, but also to protect the endangered species. Croatian laws on nature protection have a long tradition. First laws of that kind were Bird Protection Act (1893), Hunting Act (1893) and Cave Protection Act (1900) (Opačić, 2001, Opačić et al., 2004). Te basic legal document for nature protection nowadays is Nature Protection Act from 2003. From the aspect of property and government, and thereby from that of protection and management in speleological phenomena, this law has introduced several essential innovations. Te frst one is “speleological phenomena are owned by the Republic of Croatia“ (par 47, NN 70/2005). In that way all speleological phenomena in Croatia come within the competence of the Nature Protection Law. Some speleological phenomena can be additionally protected by the natural monument status or egory of tourist caves, how and to what extent are they touristically valorised and what possible role they play in the local economy of the surrounding area considering sustainable development. Božičević (1961), Pepeonik (1982) and Božić (1999) published works about tourism valorisation of caves in Croatia, but without analysing the problematics of management of show caves. the basic comparison of geomorphologic and other features, the greatest part of the research was done in the feld. By a questionnary survey of the show cave management there were determined initiatives and beginnings of the cave’s introduction into the tourist ofer, modern way of tourism valorisation (number and structure of visitors, incomes, seasonality, etc.), the cave’s role in the tourist ofer of the destination, connection with the local area, ways of protection and orientation towards sustainable development. be located within some other protected areas (e. g. Natural Park, National Park...). Te other innovation relates to possible ways of management in tourist speleological phenomena. Te Law defnes two basic management models: 1) through a public institution, and 2) through concession or concession approval. If a speleological phenomenon is located in the protected area managed by a public institution (Natural Park and National Park), the same institution manages it, too. If a speleological phenomenon is located out of a Natural Park or National Park, it is managed by a county public institution for managing the protected areas. Regardless of the phenomenon’s location (whether it is situated in or out of a Natural Park or National Park), a concession or its approval is possible. Tis Law has put aside a long-standing practice that local tourist societies can manage speleological phenomena. Nevertheless, as the Law is relatively new, we still come upon the mentioned practice. METHODS LEGAL CONTEXT OF CAVE MANAGEMENT IN CROATIA 14 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 MANAGEMENT MODELS AND DEVELOPMENT OF SHOw CAVES AS TOURIST DESTINATIONS IN CROATIA EXAMPLES OF MANAGEMENT OF SOME SHOw CAVES IN CROATIA On the basis of the defned criteria (arranged and secured arrangement, way of valorisation, inclusion into tourist path, lighting, guides, arranged approach and the man- destinations, protection and linkages with the local econ-agement body controlling the cave’s work) thirteen show omy primarily depended on the management form caves in Croatia have been determined. It was found that Name of the cave Location Length of the cave Length of the touristic path Year of the frst opening Models of the cave management Category of protection Vrlovka Kamanje, County of Karlovac 380 m 330 m 1928 Local authorities through local public institution Geomorphologic monument of nature since 1962. Veternica Medvednica, City of Zagreb 7118 m 380 m 1951 Management board of protected area (Park of nature Medvednica) Geomorphologic monument of nature since 1979., in area of Nature Park Medvednica since 1981. Donja Cerovačka Gračac, County of Zadar 2682 m 700 m 1976 Management board of protected area (Park of nature Velebit) Geomorphologic monument of nature since 1961., in area of Nature Park Velebit since 1981. Baredine Nova Vas, County of Istria 120 m 120 m 1994 Private enterpreneur through concession for cave on private (own) land Geomorphologic monument of nature since 1986. Gornja Baraćeva Rakovica, County of Karlovac 520 m 200 m 1892 Local authorities through local public institution - Špilja Vrelo Fužine, County of Primorje-Gorski kotar 310m 180 m 1965 Local authorities through local public institution - Lokvarka Lokve, County of Primorje-Gorski kotar 1 100 m 435 m 1935 Private enterpreneur through concession for cave on public land Geomorphologic monument of nature since 1961. Vranjača Dugopolje, County of Split-Dalmatia 180 m 160 m 1929 Private enterpreneur through concession for cave on private (own) land Geomorphologic monument of nature since 1963. Manita peć Starigrad-Paklenica, County of Zadar 175 m 200 m 1935 Management board of protected area (National park Paklenica) In area of National Park Paklenica since 1949. Samograd Perušić, County of Lika-Senj 220 m 220 m 1903 Local authorities through local public institution Geomorphologic monument of nature since 1964. Grgosova Samobor, City of Zagreb 60 m 20 m 1974 Private enterpreneur through concession for cave on private (own) land Geomorphologic monument of nature since 1974. Modra špilja Biševo, County of Split-Dalmatia 36 m 36 m 1884 Local authorities through local public institution Geomorphologic monument of nature since 1951. Biserujka Krk, County of Primorje-Gorski kotar 110 m 65 m 1967 Local authorities through local public institution - tab.1: main features of show caves in Croatia ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 15 NEVEN BOčIć, ALEKSANDAR LUKIć & VUK TVRTKO OPAčIć 100 km • Locations of show caves • 1 Locations of show caves elaborated in case studies fig.1: distribution of show caves in Croatia and location of case-studies Four distinctive types of cave management have been identyfed: (cave is managed by): a) management board of protected area, b) private enterpreneur through concession for cave on public land, c) private enterpre-neur through concession for cave on private (own) land, d) local authorities through local public institution. Because of diferences among the analysed parameters, especially dealing with the way of management, there were elaborated case studies for the following show caves: the cave Veternica on Medvednica near Zagreb, Lokvarka near Lokve in Gorski Kotar, Baraćeve caves near Rakovi-ca and the pit Baredina near Poreč. example 1. veternica cave – operated by management board of protected area Te cave Veternica, situated on the south-western part of Medvednica is 7,100 m long. In 1951, it was opened for tourists in the length of 380 m. Malinar (1984) wrote about beginnings of tourism valorisation of Veternica cave. Since, as a geomorphological monument of nature, it is situated in the protected area, the Public Institution Nature Park Medvednica is responsible for its management. As this is a protected area, the basic purpose of its management is its protection, then tourist, i. e. educative visits, in the course of which the sustainable development postulates are especially taken into account. Terefore, the cave Veter-nica should not be considered as a part of the Zagreb city tourist destination, but as a tourist locality in the Nature Park Med-vednica, where the sojourn tourism is still in the background. Te majority of visitors are organised groups of pupils, families, mountaineers - in one-word hikers, primarily from Zagreb, who visit the cave from the beginning of April to the beginning of November. Maximal number of visits is registered during spring (April, May, the beginning of June) and autumn months (the end of September, October), which corresponds with the school year, as well as with the weather conditions favourable for excursions. Although the number of visits is relatively small (2,500-3,000 in recent years), the Park’s management board thinks that in the future cave’s management more care should be taken about its protection than about eventual tourist visits enlargement. Te share of the Veternica cave in the total independently realised proft of the Nature Park Medvednica decreased from 22% in 2002 to 12% in 2005. example 2. baraćeve caves – run by local authorities through local public institution Baraćeve Caves (Gornja and Donja - Upper and Lower) are situated near the village Nova Kršlja in the municipality of Rakovica. Baraćeve Caves were among the frst touristically arranged caves in the continental part of Croatia. Garašić (1989) wrote abot touristic potential of surrounding of Baraćeve Caves. Tey were opened for tourists in 1892, but did not fll that function for a long period. Owing to the eforts of the Rakovica municipality the Gornja Baraćeva cave was arranged in 2003 and opened in 2004. It is 520 m long, and the length of its tourist path fgures out at about 200 m. Te main attraction of the cave is a variety of dripstone forms, archaeological and palaeontological remains, as well as an interesting ambience in front of the cave’s entrance. Besides the illuminated path in the cave, the surroundings were arranged too (promenade and excursion centre by the karst source Baraćevac). An instructive path about karst is in preparation. In 2004, the Gornja Baraćeva cave was visited by 4,800 visitors. Although it is a matter of increase, this is still a too small number of visitors for such a natural tourist attraction, which lies against the nearby Plitvice Lakes. Owing to its favourable position, the Baraćeva cave relies on foreign guests in high tour- 16 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 MANAGEMENT MODELS AND DEVELOPMENT OF SHOw CAVES AS TOURIST DESTINATIONS IN CROATIA ist season, and on domestic ones (mostly groups) in the of-season period. Te cave is managed by the local government (municipality of Rakovica) through the Public Institution for Managing Protected Natural Values throughout the area of the municipality of Rakovica. example 3. Lokvarka cave – managed by private enter-preneur through concession for cave on public land Te cave Lokvarka is located in Lokve, a settlement in Gorski Kotar near Delnice. It was discovered in 1911/1912, and in 1935, a part of it was electrifed and opened for visits. Te cave was arranged on several occasions (1961, 1973-74). Te Tourist Community Lokve ran the cave till the frst half of the 1990s, when the public institution Croatian Forestry overtook the management for a short time, and by the mid-1990 it was overtaken by a private concessionaire. Te concession was approved for three years, and then it had to be prolonged every year. In 2005, the number of sold tickets amounted to some 7,000, although the number of visits was somewhat larger (free entrances for associations, etc.). In that time, the cave was permanently opened from 1 May to 1 October, and the visits accompanied by guide services were fxed from 10 to 19 o’clock. In the remaining months the cave could be visited having made a preliminary announcement. Group visits of the Croatian pupils dominated in the visitor structure. As to the other group visits, we must single out foreign guests (especially the German), who visited the cave in the course of one-day trips to Gorski Kotar organised by the travel agency, which managed the cave. Between 20 June and 1 September (during school holidays), individual guests from the country and abroad dominated. During his management, the concessionaire did only the necessary infrastructure maintaining (staircase handholds, painting, electric power, and similar), because he had no fnances for greater interventions, e. g. a complete replacement of three steep staircases. Te aggravating circumstance in the cave management was the risk of long-term investments in such a short-term concession (1 year). Since the spring of 2006, the cave has been managed by the Tourist Community Lokve. Considerations about further tourist valorisation and management in the framework of the local government are in progress. example 4. baredine pit – managed by private enter-preneur through concession for cave on private (own) land Te pit Baredine is the youngest, but also, by the number of visitors, touristically the most important speleological feature in Croatia. It is also the frst touristically arranged pit in the Croatian part of Istria (Dečak, 1994). Te Baredine was discovered in the nineteen seventies on a private estate in the village of Nova Vas. Te activities of the pit’s protection and tourist valorisation was initiated by the estate’s owner, who was also a caver. He did it by his own fnances. Till the mid1990-s a confned number of visitors was allowed to visit the pit through speleoad-venture. In 1995, the Baredine was opened for tourist visits (arranged electric lighting and staircase). Between 7,000 and 8,000 tourists visited the pit that year. Te number of guests in 2004 and 2005 amounted to about 50,000. From 1 April till 31 October the pit is opened for visitors every day and during the remaining fve months only for announced groups. 8 people are permanently employed there, and some additional guides only periodically. As to the visitor structure, individual guests dominate (especially in the summer months at the peak of the tourist season), and the share of foreign visitors is also very signifcant, especially that of the German, Danish, Dutch, Russian, Italian… Individual visits, mostly out of the summer season, supplement school and expert excursions from Croatia and abroad (Italy, Germany, Belgium, Denmark…). Besides by the speleological feature itself, the visitors are also motivated by the speleothems and Proteus anguinus placed in a natural recess flled with water. Te basic function of this pit is tourist, which is also visible from the arrangement of the accompanying attractions (catering establishment, “agro-museum” in the open air, souvenirs sale, sale of original food-stuf, fruit and vegetables, picnic place, exhibition space...). Some 20 families take part periodically in the mentioned accompanying tourist ofer. Te owner plans to widen the tourist ofer and to create a complex tourist product, for which there are corresponding space-planning regulations MODELS OF MANAGEMENT IN SHOw CAVES IN CROATIA In view of the analysed examples and actual legal basis we are dealing with four diferent models of management tourist caves in Croatia (Fig. 2). ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 17 NEVEN BOčIć, ALEKSANDAR LUKIć & VUK TVRTKO OPAčIć fig.2: management models of show caves in Croatia a) management board of a protected area Te largest part of the area within the protected regions in Croatia relates to two categories. Tey are natural parks and national parks, which together account for 90 per cent of all protected Croatian regions. Nature Protection Law says that public institutions manage these two categories. Tree show caves belong to this type of management, so they are in the competence of public institutions (Veternica in the Natural Park Medvednica, Cerovac Caves in the Natural Park Velebit, Manita Peć in the National Park Paklenica).1 According to the Nature Protection Law, “public institutions...attend to the busi- 1 Te Law enables a concession assignment for a speleological phenomenon within National and Natural Parks too. Although there are no such cases in Croatia at the moment, it is interesting to single out the example of the Cerovac Caves. Tey are located in the Natural Park Velebit, and until recently have been managed by a private concessionaire. Unsatisfed with the management, the public institution of the Natural Park Velebit has overtaken it. ness of protection, maintenance and promotion of the protected area in order to protect and preserve authenticity of nature, to ensure an undisturbed development of natural processes and sustainable use of natural goods, and to supervise the execution of conditions and measures of nature protection in the area of their management” (NN 70/2005). National Park and Natural Park are managed on the basis of a special spatial plan introduced by the Croatian National Parliament, the plan of managing a protected area and regulations about the internal order. Tese determinants have really defned the way of evaluation of speleological phenomena in the protected regions. Te most important is “preservation of signif-cant and characteristic features of a landscape and maintenance of biological, geological and cultural values, which defne its signifcance and aesthetic experience” (NN 70/2005). Terefore, tourist signifcance of speleological objects in this management type is subordinate to their protection. Moreover, National and Natural Parks become distinctive as peculiar tourist destinations 18 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 MANAGEMENT MODELS AND DEVELOPMENT OF SHOw CAVES AS TOURIST DESTINATIONS IN CROATIA (branding and marketing at the park level), while particular localities in them, e.g. caves and pits, make a part of their attraction ofer and have not yet developed into separate tourist destinations. Public institutions make proft out of several diferent sources: budget, gate receipts in National Parks and speleological phenomena and other own profts. Terefore, dependence on the profts from the “cave” is signifcantly smaller than under private forms of management. b) local authorities through a local public institution out of a protected area Units of local authorities and self-government (municipalities and towns) on whose territory there is a speleological phenomenon, can manage the phenomenon by giving a concession to a private entrepreneur or, more ofen, to run it through a local tourist community or through for that purpose established public institution (Baraćeve špilje, Biserujka, Lokvarka 2, Samograd, Vrelo, Vrlovka). Consequently, respecting the Croatian Nature Protection Law, a special stress has been laid upon economic exploitation of a speleological phenomenon. Local authority unit realises earnings, therefore it is interested in transformation of a touristically evaluated cave or pit into a peculiar separate destination. Te advantage of this management model is in the fact that the management and marketing are being done from the same centre, which can contribute to a more powerful and more durable defnition of the cave as an important segment of local tourist ofer – and which is not always the case in relation between a private concessionaire and local community. c) private entrepreneur (through concession) of a cave on public land According to the Law a concessionaire can manage a speleological phenomenon. “Concession enables the privilege of economic exploitation of natural resources or that of performing activities of interest to the Republic of Croatia, as well as the privilege for construction and use of facilities necessary for doing those activities in protected areas and speleological phenomena where it is permitted according to this Law (NN 70/2005). Although this way of management was used in Croatia afer transfer to market economy (Lokvarka and Cerovac Caves), there is only one speleological phenomenon arranged for tourist visits (submarine Modra Cave on the island of Biševo), where concession has been given to the tourist agencies, which organise visits by vessels. In this case the primary motivation of the concessionaire is fnancial beneft, while big investments, especially dealing with a contract of short duration, are not proftable. Terefore a concession contract, as well as management supervision, is a necessary measure of protection. According to the available data, a short duration of concessions deepens the gap between fnancial interests of a concessionaire on the one hand and necessity for a long sustainable evaluation of a cave for tourist purposes on the other. Such situation has resulted in mutual discontents and breaks of cooperation. From the aspect of destination, certain disadvantages of this model can be noticed: the management is in the hands of a concessionaire, and the local authorities take care about development of the destination. Consequently, the relations between the interested parties directly infuence tourism valorisation of a speleological phenomenon. d) private owners of the cave through concession and on his own land Te law says: “Te owner or privilege holder of the land where there is a speleological phenomenon has priority in getting concession or compensation for limitations imposed because of using the speleological phenomenon proportionally to the reduced proft.” we consider this Law paragraph the key one in this management model analysis, because it enables continuity in managing, which is the prerequisite of a long sustainable use of the speleological phenomenon. Tis management form, just as the former one, appeared in Croatia afer the transfer to the market economy. Tree caves in Croatia (Baredine, Grgosova Cave and Vranjača) are managed on the basis of this model. Te land owner, also the concessionaire, is interested in transformation of the speleological phenomenon into an independent tourist destination, the notion of which includes a more complex ofer (from accommodation and catering services to accompanying elements such as souvenirs, collections, galleries...). It brings diversifcation of the concessionaire’s product, but also the spill-over of economic efects to the local community. Te branding process of the total destination product has also been singled out, but under the name of speleological phenomenon. If this is realised, a show cave or pit becomes an important tourist ofer of the region. 2 According to this model, today you can count and Lokvarka cave, although, not so long it was managed through concession on public land (model c). As of such kind it was treated in this work. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 19 CONCLUSIONS NEVEN BOčIć, ALEKSANDAR LUKIć & VUK TVRTKO OPAčIć On the basis of the collected data about show caves in Croatia, as well as on the more analysed case studies, it is possible to draw the following conclusions: • Although there are 13 speleological features arranged for tourist visits in Croatia, we consider that, regarding attractiveness, trafc accessibility and possibility of an average tourist’s visit, there are some more potential caves for tourist valorisation (for example Gvozdenica cave). • Four distinctive management models have been identifyed: a) management board of protected area, b) private enterpreneur through concession for cave on public land, c) private enterpreneur through concession for cave on private (own) land, d) local authorities through local public institution.Tey have been recognized as an important factor for tourism valorisation of show caves. • It has been recognised that the model of management by concession on public land under the existing circumstances has turned out as inadequate, so it is disappearing. • Although the majority of the show caves in Croatia are protected by a category of a geomorphological monument of nature, their tourism valorisation primarily depends on the way of management. Namely, if a public institution runs a cave (e. g., Nature Park or National we thank those who helped us unselfshly in our research: Silvio Legović (Jama Baredine), Silvija Barbarić (Tourist Community Lokve), Snježana Malić - Limari (Nature Park), the protection component is more prominent, which is understandable regarding the basic function of the institution, as well as the fact that the proft from the cave does not make the basic element of the public institution proft structure. On the other hand, if a private concessionaire manages a show cave, the business orientation towards tourism is more marked. Consequently, in these cases the connection with local economy is more prominent, just as the signifcance of the phenomenon within the tourist destinations. • Having compared our situation with the experiences abroad (Forti & Cigna, 1989; Ramšak, 2004; Cabe-zas, 2004; Bartholeyns, 2004), but also on the basis of the specifc data about the number of visits, inclusion into the tourist product of destinations and way of valorisation (almost exclusively only a visit), we consider that the majority of the show caves in Croatia are still insuf-fciently explored. Actual legal basis, which is the foundation of the cave management in Croatia, is relatively new. Terefore, the presented management models could not completely become a reality. Teir continuous observation and evaluation intrudes as an essential factor of the sustainable development of the Croatian karst area. Park Medvednica), Franjo Franjković, Tihana Rakić (Ra-kovica Municipality) and Mr. Gašparac from Lokve. ACKNOwLEDGEMENTS 20 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 MANAGEMENT MODELS AND DEVELOPMENT OF SHOw CAVES AS TOURIST DESTINATIONS IN CROATIA REFERENCES Bartholeyns, J.-P., 2004: Sustainable Development of Show Caves and Protection of a Common Heritage. IV I.S.C.A. International Congress, Postojna, Slovenia 2002, 195-200, Postojna Božić, V. , 1984: Počeci speleološkog turizma u Hrvatskoj. Zbornik predavanja 9. jugoslavenskog speleološkog kongresa, Karlovac 1984, Speleološko društvo Hrvatske, 829-836, Zagreb Božić, V. , 1999: Speleološki turizam u Hrvatskoj-vodič po uređenim i pristupačnim špiljama i jamama. Naklada „Ekološkog glasnika“, p. 168, Zagreb Božičević, S. 1961: Zaštita pećina u Hrvatskoj i njihovo uređenje u turističke svrhe. Zbornik predavanja 2. jugoslavenskog speleološkog kongresa, Split 1958. Speleološko društvo Hrvatske. 147-154, Zagreb Cabezas, J., 2004: New Trends in Cave Management. IV I.S.C.A. International Congress, Postojna, Slovenia 2002, 123-128, Postojna Cigna, A.A. & Burri, E., 2000: Development, management and economy of show caves. Int. J. Speleol., vol. 29 B, 1-27, Bologna Dečak, V. , 1994: Jama Baredine kod Poreča - prva turistički uređena špilja u Istri. Speleolog, 42-43, 22-24, Zagreb Forti, P & Cigna, A.A., 1989: Cave tourism in Italy: an overview. Cave Tourism, Proc. Int. Symp. 170th An-niv. Postojnska jama, Postojna 1988., ZRC SAZU & Postojnska jama, Ljubljana Garašić, M., 1989: Surrounding of Barač’s caves - the former show cave - with regard to touristic potential and valorisation. Cave Tourism, Proc. Int. Symp. 170th Anniv. Postojnska jama, Postojna 1988., ZRC SAZU & Postojnska jama, Ljubljana Kušen, E., 2002: Turistička atrakcijska osnova. Znanstvena edicija Instituta za turizam, p. 262 , Institut za turizam, Zagreb Malinar, H., 1984: Zaštita i uređenje špilje Veternice. Zbornik predavanja 9. jugoslavenskog speleološkog kongresa Karlovac 1984., 863-866, Zagreb Opačić, V.T., 2001: Zaštita prirode - hrvatska šansa za opstanak i razvoj. Hrvatska revija, 1/1, 119-127, Zagreb Opačić, V.T., Lukić, A. & Furst-Bjeliš, B., 2004: Sustainable development of recreation and tourism in protected areas of Croatia: issues and indicators. Proc-cedings of International scientifc project: Improving to knowledge base for sustainable managemeof recreational resourses in transitional countries. Koprivštica, Bulgaria 2004, in press Pepeonik, Z., 1982: Te Role of the Caves in the Tourist Ofer of Croatia. Le Grotte d’Italiana, (4) X, 109-114, Castellana Grotte Ramšak, S., 2004: Show caves in Slovenia. IV I.S.C.A. International Congress, Postojna, Slovenia 2002, 49-54, Postojna ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 21 COBISS: 1.01 TOURISM AND PRESERVATION POLICIES IN KARST AREAS: COMPARISON BETwEEN THE ŠKOCJAN CAVES (SLOVENIJA) AND THE ARDECHE GORGE (FRANCE) TURIZEM IN OHRANJANJE KRAŠKEGA SVETA: PRIMERJAVA MED ŠKOCJANSKIMI JAMAMI (SLOVENIJA) IN SOTESKO ARDECHE (FRANCIJA) Mélanie DUVAL1 Abstract UDC 551.44:338.48(497.4+44) Mélanie Duval: Tourism and preservation policies in Karst areas: comparision betwen the Škocjan caves (Slovenia) and the Ardeche gorge (France) Tis paper presents a comparative study of the Ardeche Gorge Natural Reserve (France) and the Škocjan Caves Regional Park (Slovenia). As major tourist attractions, both these areas have progressively structured their economies around tourism, although they have implemented very diferent development and karst landscape protection policies. In very simplistic terms, management of the Ardeche Gorge can be described as very laxest, whereas development in the Škocjan Caves is much more strictly controlled. when examined from this preservation/development perspective, the diferences in the ways the two sites are managed can be traced through a diachronic approach to the history of their tourism development. in fne, this comparative approach illustrates how two processes between tourism and preservation policies structure territories development on karst areas. key words: karstic landscapes, preservation, tourism, Škocjanske jame caves, Ardeche Gorge Natural Reserve, France, Slovenia. Izvleček UDK 551.44:338.48(497.4+44) Mélanie Duval: Turizem in ohranjanje kraškega sveta: primerjava med Škocjanskimi jamami (Slovenija) in sotesko Ar-deche (Francija) Sestavek predstavlja primerjalno študijo Narodnega rezervata Soteska Ardeche (Francija) in Regionalnega parka Škocjanske jame (Slovenija). Kot veliki turistični privlačnosti sta ti dve območji počasi gradili svoji gospodarski osnovi na turizmu, vendar na različen način in na osnovi različnega pristopa k varovanju kraške pokrajine. Najpreprosteje povedano, Soteska Ardeche je imela zelo proste roke, medtem ko je bil razvoj Škocjanskih jam bolj strogo kontroliran. če gledamo z vidika ohranjanja/razvoja, opazimo razlike v upravljanju teh dveh znamenitosti na osnovi diahroničnega pristopa k zgodovini razvoja njihovega turizma. in fne, ta primerjalni pristop lepo pokaže, kako ta dva procesa, turizem in politika ohranjanja, strukturirata razvoj na kraških območjih. ključne besede: kraška pokrajina, ohranjanje, turizem, Škocjanske jame, Narodni rezervat Soteska Ardeche, Francija, Slovenija. INTRODUCTION Tis paper presents a comparative study of the Ardeche Gorge Natural Reserve (France) and the Škocjan Caves Regional Park (Slovenia), thereby illustrating two of the directions tourism development in karst areas can take. As major tourist attractions, both these areas have pro- although they have implemented very diferent development and karst landscape protection policies. Approaches to these karst landscapes have alternately placed to the fore either the heritage dimension or the tourism dimension of the resource, with the resource gressively structured their economies around tourism, being defned as that “which can be capitalised upon, 1 Laboratoire Edytem, University of Savoie, Chambéry, France, e-mail: melanie_duval@yahoo.fr Received / Prejeto: 11.07.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2, 23–35, LJUBLJANA 2006 MéLANIE DUVAL conserved or exploited for private or public beneft, a sort of hybrid notion between private goods and public goods. Tis notion includes the idea of an intergen-erational duty of care and responsibility and allows for compromise between the economic exploitation of the resource and its ecological protection and conservation” (Peyrache-Gadeau V. , 2004, p.3). Since tourism began in these two areas, the gradual intensifcation of the dialectic between preservation and development has led to the creation of two protected tourist areas. Of course, a balance between preservation and development can be achieved in a number of different ways and the approach each area takes to achieve this balance will be governed by that area’s own evolving characteristics. By comparing two similar regions, we were able to elucidate the forms this precarious balance THE VALUE OF A COMPAR Te Ardeche Gorge and Škocjan Caves sites show a suf-fcient number of similarities for a comparative approach to be valid. Both areas are geologically and geomorpho-logically very similar, as both are karst plateaux dotted with collapse dolines, caves and potholes. One of the frst people to have compared the two areas was Martel, who drew parallels between the karst formations at Škocjan and the Saint-Marcel Cave (cave in the Ardeche Gorge that was the trigger for tourist development in the area) in his book les Abîmes (1894, p.83-84). As with all karst plateaux, the protection and management of water resources is a question that cannot be ignored. In addition to problems related to water quality, both areas have had to deal with concerns over maintaining water quantities. Tese concerns have been addressed through large-scale water management projects. In Slovenia, a Ramsar convention was signed in 1999 and a Man and Biosphere (MAB) project was set up in 2004. In France, a General water Development Plan (Schéma d’Aménagement Général des Eaux - SAGE) has been drawn up. By fxing objectives in terms of quality, quantity and environmental protection, these programmes provide frameworks for consultation and dialogue between the parties involved. Comparisons can also be made between the measures taken to preserve the karst resource and to develop tourism. Both areas are covered by a number of protection measures: the Ardeche Gorge has been a natural reserve since 1980 and the Pont d’Arc has been a listed site since 1982; the Škocjan Caves have been a UNESCO monument since 1986 and a regional park since 1996. Both areas are aware of the need to promote a sustainable form of development and have set up education- can take and to present two diferent ways of approaching the management of tourism in karst areas. A comparative approach to geographical research presents the major advantage of bringing together difer-ent approaches to a problem, thereby revealing explanatory factors and facilitating the analysis of the processes involved. By comparing “protected tourist karst areas” in France and Slovenia from diachronic and synchronic points of view, we were able to highlight the factors behind the methods currently used to manage these two protected tourist sites. Tus, the presentation of the main characteristics of these two sites is followed by a discussion of the factors that have determined the approaches to managing the balance between preservation and development adopted in the Ardeche Gorge and Škocjan Caves areas. IVE REGIONAL APPROACH al programmes for young visitors. Hence, since 1997, the Ardeche Gorge Natural Reserve has been recognised by the French Ministry of Education as an educational site for school groups. At the Škocjan site, a nature trail was opened in 2002 and awareness programmes are carried out in conjunction with local schools. Tese diferent protection measures and awareness-raising actions are aimed at developing a more responsible approach to tourism development, which had ofen been regarded as “anarchic” or “inappropriate” by the authorities responsible for the two areas. In 2004, 89,700 people visited the Škocjan Caves; however, this can only be considered a base fgure for tourist numbers, as many people only follow the nature trail to the view points overlooking the collapse dolines: a number that is difcult to evaluate. Visitor numbers to the Ardeche Gorge can be estimated using several diferent indicators, for example, the number of canoe descents (more than 180,000 per year), the counter on the road through the Ardeche Gorge (245,000 vehicles in 1997, assuming an average of 3 people per vehicle, this gives a fgure of 735,000 visitors – according to the reserve management plan, p.21), the number of visitors to the tourist caves (Saint-Marcel Cave: 42,000 visitors per year, Madeleine Cave: 49,000, Orgnac Cave: 125,000 – National Tourism Observatory, 2002). Te diferent government and local bodies generally agree on a fgure of 1.5 million tourists per year (‘rural excellence pole’ report). Te Ardeche Gorge and the Škocjan Caves are tourist areas in which tourist fow management and protection measures have progressively been implemented. 24 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 TOURISM AND PRESERVATION POLICIES IN KARST AREAS: COMPARISON BETwEEN THE ŠKOCJAN CAVES ... THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROTECTION MEASURES1 Te need to protect the Ardeche Gorge area became apparent as early as the beginning of the 20th century. In 1913, Martel proposed the creation of a national park in order to protect the gorge from excessive construction. However, the measures introduced to protect the site only covered specifc areas; for example, the Pont d’Arc was listed as a natural monument and a site of outstanding artistic, historic, scientifc, legendary or scenic interest on 24th January 1931 and the Saint-Marcel Cave was classifed on 26th June 1934. As was ofen the case at this time, only the natural monuments were protected, i.e. the arch of the Pont dArc and the area around the entrance to the Saint-Marcel Cave, and no ofcial boundary to these areas was defned (map 1). Tis frst wave of legislation was completed on 15th January 1943 by the listing of the Ardeche Gorge in the ‘Inventory of Sites’. Under article 4 of the Act of 2nd May 1930 regarding the protection of natural monuments and sites of outstanding artistic, historic, scientifc, legendary or scenic interest (Ofcial Journal of 4th May 1930), development work cannot be undertaken without the consent of the authorities. However, checks were infrequent and ofen took place afer the work was fnished, so this requirement was ofen ignored and development continued within the protected area, e.g. the creation of a campsite near the Saint-Marcel Cave in 1965. A further step was taken at the beginning of 1969 with the drawing up of a development plan (Plan Di- map 1: Construction of protected area: Ardeche Gorge in 1980. 1 A table summarising these protection measures is given at the end of the article. recteur d’Urbanisme) for the Ardeche Gorge. Te immediate perimeter of the gorge was given full protection, being declared a ‘no-construction’ zone in which building of any nature was forbidden. A few months later, on 23rd September 1969, the ‘Commission des Sites de l’Ardeche’ ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 25 MéLANIE DUVAL decided to classify the development plan’s ‘no-construction’ zone as a natural reserve. Tis project took ten years to complete due to opposition from hunters, the mayors of the towns and villages concerned, owners of land within the reserve and members of the local tourism industry (campsite owners, canoe rental businesses). Several proposals were put forward, with the area covered by the reserve being reduced from an initial 2,389ha to 1,572ha. In order to satisfy the demands of all the interested parties, the objectives of the reserve focused on managing the development of tourism within the gorge. For example, two 250-person bivouac sites were set up on the banks of the river, in addition to the existing campsites (Mas de Serret: 100 pitches, La Châtaigneraie: 200 pitches, Te Saint-Marcel Cave: 100 pitches, Les Templiers: 300 pitches, i.e. 1200 pitches in total). In a strange coincidence, it was also at this time that consideration started to be given to the future of the Škocjan Caves. In 1980, Sezana District Council (which managed the cave) approved a protection order for the Škocjan Caves with the dual objectives of preserving the karst environment and of preventing any inappropriate tourism development in and around the caves (Zorman T., 2004, p.114). Tis frst protection measure was followed in 1982 by a symposium called “Protection of the Karst on the 160th anniversary of Škocjanske jame”. Under the guise of a general symposium on tourist caves, the meeting focused almost entirely on the Škocjan Caves, covering their geomorphological characteristics, problems of pollution in the River Reka, the development of the caves and, above all, their future as a tourist attraction. Te participants at the symposium were asked to approve a motion that would foreshadow the direction the management of the site would take. Te wording of this motion also provided an indication of the motivation behind the site’s bid to be classifed as a UNESCO world heritage site. Te Škocjan Caves were presented as the birthplace of speleology and karstology, as an outstanding monument of international value to be protected against any form of pollution (particularly pollution in the River Reka) and as a tourist attraction with the potential to become a tourism hub for the surrounding area. In 1986, an area of 200 ha around the collapse dolines was classifed by UNESCO under criteria ii, an eminent example of the development of ecosystems, and iii, a superlative natural phenomena or area of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance. However, the classifcation documents difered from the motion approved in 1982, as they highlighted the main threats to the Škocjan Caves site. Tese threats included industrial pollution in the River Reka and the “risk of inappropriate infrastructure development in the area around the caves”, in particular the building of car parks for tourists, i.e. it had been deemed “necessary to reinforce planning regulations to ensure the 200ha cultural landscape included in the site remain authentic and natural” (p.96). Between the position taken in 1982 and the application for classifcation in 1986, it appears there was a change in the way the development of the Škocjan Caves was seen, with the regional development perspective being superseded by a strict control over all tourism development. POINTS OF COMPARISON AND EXPLANATORY FACTORS Although measures have been taken to protect both the Ardeche Gorge and the Škocjan Caves sites, there are signifcant diferences in the way the preservation/development balance has been approached. In very simplistic terms, management of the Ardeche Gorge can be described as very laxist, whereas development in the Škocjan Caves is much more strictly controlled. Tese diferences can be explained by a number of factors, many of which are variables efecting the preservation/ development couplet. Te history of tourism development Exploitation of the Škocjan Caves and the Ardeche Gorge for tourism purposes began several centuries ago. Louis François Cassas’s illustrations of Istria and Dalmatia show people at the bottom of the collapse dolines, indicating that tourists were already visiting the Škocjan Caves site in 1782 (Keckemet D., 1978), and the opening of a visitor book in 1819 shows that tourism in the Škocjan Caves was becoming more organised. At this time the visit involved descending paths that had been built to the bottom of the Velika collapse doline. (Kranjc A., 2002, p.42): a visit that attracted increasing numbers of tourists, with numbers rising to 3,639 in 1903 (Mihevc A., 2002, p.119). It was during this same period that Albert Du Boys (1842) published his account of the recreational activities in the Ardeche Gorge, which were mostly concentrated around the Saint-Marcel Cave. Te visit of these caves, which was depicted in an engraving by Victor Cassien (p.198-199), consisted of following ladders through the frst three chambers: “everyone had a torch, which lef behind long trails of fame and smoke”. A little later in his book, in a chapter on the Pont d’Arc (p.210-216), Du Boys relates how, for the price of “four or fve francs per man”, the Ardeche boatmen would take tourists up the river from Saint-Martin to Vallon. At this time, visitors did not descend the river; they went up it! In both cases, tourists came to admire the picturesque landscape of these karst areas. Publicised by the il- 26 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 TOURISM AND PRESERVATION POLICIES IN KARST AREAS: COMPARISON BETwEEN THE ŠKOCJAN CAVES ... lustrated writings of previous visitors, both areas quickly became tourist attractions but their tourism development would follow very diferent routes, leading to the Ardeche Gorge becoming “over-run” by tourists. Accessibility Te extreme popularity of the Ardeche Gorge can be partly explained by its accessibility. Te gorge was quickly made accessible, either by water or by land (construction of the frst section of the tourist road past the Pont d’Arc in 1887, completion of the Ardeche Gorge tourist road in 1969). Te River Ardeche became the hub of the area, concentrating the fow of tourists to its waters and its banks. Tis accessibility, combined with other factors such as the development of canoeing, social tourism, na-turism and the development of mass tourism (Daudé G., 1986), was one of the key factors in the evolution of tourism in the Ardeche Gorge. In contrast, tourism around the Škocjan Caves did not develop as strongly, despite the area’s proximity to the Trieste-Vienna railway (opened in 1857). Tis contrast can be explained with reference to a second element in the notion of accessibility. In fact, access has to be considered on a smaller scale, i.e. the accessibility of the individual caves rather than the entire karst area. Although the Škocjan site is easy to get to, the area’s major attractions, i.e. its collapse dolines, are less easily accessible than neighbouring tourist caves, such as the Postojna Cave, 25 kilometres to the north-east along the same railway line. Te topography of the Postojna Cave is more suited to large-scale tourist development and the authorities responsible for Postojna were very quick to set up a system for controlling the fow of tourists: installation of a door to protect the cave from intruders in 1819, creation of a special commission for the cave in 1823, installation of a system of cars pushed along rails in 1872, which was modernised in 1914 with the introduction of petrol locomotives, and in 1959 with electric locomotives. In 1968, the construction of a circular line increased the cave’s capacity to 14,400 visitors per day. To give a comparison, in 1980, when the future of the Škocjan Cave was being considered, Postojna received 827,826 visitors, whereas Škocjan only received 37,500, a ratio of 22 to 1! Te politico-economic context Although visitor numbers for the Škocjan site were relatively “modest” compared with other Slovenian caves and the Ardeche Gorge, new protection measures, such as the UNESCO classifcation in 1986, focused on this aspect of the site. Tis apparent paradox was partially the result of the political context surrounding the decision to apply for UNESCO classifcation. In order to satisfy the political interests of the diferent republics within Yugoslavia, the Yugoslav federal committee asked each republic to list potential world heritage sites. Both Postojna and Škocjan were on the list for the Republic of Slovenia. Despite its international reputation, it was decided that the Postojna site was too “built up” and developed and preference was given to the “more natural” Škocjan Caves site. Tus, distinct approaches to the karst resource preservation/tourism development couplet become apparent. For both the Ardeche Gorge and the Škocjan Caves, the objective of the protection measures that have been introduced is to preserve the fauna, fora, geology and geo-morphology of the site. However, in the Ardeche Gorge, these measures have been applied to an area that attracts a large number of visitors and in which river-based tourism is a vital part of the economy. For example, Vourc’h and Natali (2000, p.31) estimated the turnover of the canoeing business in the Ardeche Gorge to be 20 million francs (€3 million). As a result, protection measures were designed to manage the fow of tourists through the area, rather than to reduce the number of visitors. In contrast, the Škocjan site was protected before large-scale tourism existed and the implicit objective of the protection measures was to regulate future development. Although the underlying intention of the UNESCO classifcation was to structure tourism development for the whole of the Kras Plateau, with the Škocjan site as its hub, precautions were taken to prevent any “unsuitable” development. Tis perception of tourism development as needing to take into account the preservation of the entire karst resource can be found in the wording of the protection legislation. Legislation Te Škocjan Caves are governed by the ‘Škocjan Caves Regional Park’ Act of 1st October 1996. Te Act was worded to comply with the recommendations made in the 1986 UNESCO inscription documents, which stipulated: “the possibility of enlarging the regional park would be a welcome initiative” (p.96). Tis legislation strengthened the protection of the Škocjan Caves, which are considered a national treasure, both for their natural beauty and for their archaeological and anthropological riches. Going beyond the ofen obsolete and harmful distinction between nature and culture, the management of the park is based on a global and multi-disciplinary approach. Article I of the Act states, “In order to preserve and research its outstanding geomorphological, geological, and hydrological formations, rare and threatened plant and animal species, palaeontological and archaeological sites, ethnological and architectural characteristics and the cultural landscape, and to ensure conditions for adequate development, the region of the Škocjan Caves is hereby declared a regional park called Škocjanske jame”. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 27 MéLANIE DUVAL Conversely, the legislation creating the Ardeche Gorge Natural Reserve only considers the natural riches of the site, placing the emphasis on the protection of plant and animal species. Moreover, these protection measures do not go very far. For example, articles 3 and 6, designed to limit hunting to wild boar, were strongly opposed by local people and were annulled in 1983. Even though one of the reasons put forward for creating the reserve was to protect the fauna, the legislation protecting wildlife in the park is no stricter than elsewhere. Tese contradictory currents result in fuctuations between tighter and more permissive regulation. Tis is also the case for camping in the gorge, the regulation of which was one of the main reasons for creating the reserve: “as one of the objectives of the reserve is to preserve the natural environment while allowing public access, article 7 of the draf statutory order stipulates that camping is forbidden throughout the reserve; however, two water-sports centres will be set up where visitors may camp for one night” (record 1305w21, ‘départemental’ archives, Privas). As a result, two bivouac sites were set up, draining most of the reserve’s fnancial subsidies for the frst ten years of its existence, with the “light facilities” initially planned being redefned to include giant barbecues, large, marquee-style tents, and over-elaborate sanitary facilities, etc. Te planned capacity of 250 campers per bivouac, i.e. a total of 500 people, was ofen exceeded; for example, the fgure of 3,508 campers was reached during the weekend of 26th/27th June 1999 (Consultative Committee Report of 13th July 2004, p.4). However, during the last ten years the management of this natural reserve has moved in a more environment-and wildlife-friendly direction. Te change, which began in 1997 with the drawing up of a LIFE programme for the area, was embodied in the reserve’s 1999-2003 management plan, which included a monitoring programme and signifcant scientifc projects. In 2002 a central booking ofce was set up in order to regulate visitor numbers and the number of people per night per bivouac has been reduced to 700, with the intention of reducing this number to 500 for the 2006 season. Preservation areas In concrete terms, the two approaches to managing the karst resource preservation/development couplet have led to the defnition of preservation areas. Te Ardeche Gorge includes two preservation areas: the 1,575 ha Ardeche Gorge Natural Reserve and the 1,040 ha Pont d’Arc listed site (map 2). Even though French environmental law allows for the creation of preservation areas around natural reserves, such areas have never been defned in law and cannot be opposable to third parties. Furthermore, no such protection areas have ever been created around the Ardeche Gorge, despite being on the agenda of several consultation meetings, ofen under the heading of “sensitive zone” or “peripheral zone”. Nevertheless, two protection measures have gradually been introduced for the peripheral area around the Ardeche Gorge. Firstly, in 1992 a “biotope order” was issued for the Dent de Rez, a 3,500 ha area of land on the lef bank of the river, upstream from the gorge. Tis area covers the ‘communes’ of Gras, Lagorce and Saint Maurice d’Ibie. Te ‘Syndicat de Gestion des Gorges de l’Ardeche’ was given responsibility for the management of this area in 1997, together with those parts of the ‘communes’ that fall within the natural reserve, i.e. a total area between 12,000 and 13,000 ha (visual assessment afer topographic map). Secondly, the increase in size of the protected areas has been combined with the extension of the responsibilities of the ‘Syndicat de Gestion des Gorges de l’Ardeche’. Since 2004, the ‘Syndicat’ has taken “full responsibility for the land of the ‘communes’ that falls within areas clas-sifed as a natural reserve or as a Natura 2000 site, as well as for an “intervention zone” comprising the ‘communes’ or parts of ‘communes’ belonging to the natural environment of the Ardeche Gorge” (Prefectoral order of 26th March 2004). Te terms under which the ‘Syndicat’ operates and the area for which it is responsible are generally defned by the objectives of the Natura 2000 fauna and fora protection programme. However, there are no real measures for protecting the karst resource itself. Although the protection of species depends on the protection of the environment as a whole, one could perhaps expect that a preservation area would be defned according to geological, geomorphological and karst criteria, taking into account the surface networks to be protected and the preservation of water resources through actions covering the entire drainage basin. None of the protection measures have taken a whole-karst approach to preservation. Te karst as a whole has only been considered by other parties, for example through the implementation of a General water Development Plan, for which the existence of the natural reserve is only a peripheral consideration (map 3). Troughout the Ardeche Gorge area, there is a superposition of preservation areas, which telescope into other programmes without really producing concerted actions in terms of managing the karst resource. Recently, a regional project based around the Ar-deche Gorge natural reserve has started to emerge with the desire to implement a ‘rural excellence pole’ and a new rural development programme, steered by the DI-ACT (inter-governmental delegation for regional devel- 28 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 TOURISM AND PRESERVATION POLICIES IN KARST AREAS: COMPARISON BETwEEN THE ŠKOCJAN CAVES ... map 2: Preservation areas around Ardeche Gorge, since 1980 to 2006. opment and competitiveness, new naming of DATAR). Te Ardeche Gorge reserve, as a protected tourist area will form the hub of an ‘Ardeche Gorge’ region. One of the main objectives of this programme is to renovate the tourism ofer provided by the Ardeche Gorge and its surrounding area, by creating a network of local tourism industry players. However, this new programme will be superimposed on top of the measures described above, without any real consideration or explanation of how they will be linked. Te structure of the preservation areas around the Škocjan Caves is evidence of a completely diferent ap- proach to the problem. Te Škocjan Caves site is at the heart of several preservation areas (map 4), but subject to a global management system, as stipulated under the 1996 Act. Te original, 1986 UNESCO site covered 200 ha around the collapse dolines. Tis area has gradually been increased, with the 1996 ‘Škocjan Caves Regional Park’ Act defning a central zone of 413 ha around the caves that includes areas around exceptional cultural and historical monuments subject to even stricter protection measures. Tis Act also created a bufer zone covering the 45,000 ha of the Reka watershed upstream from the central area. Unlike the preservation areas in the Ardeche ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 29 MéLANIE DUVAL map 3: localization to the Ardeche Gorge Natural Reserve with regard to the watershed of the river Ardeche. Gorge, this extended zone was defned according to the need to protect the entire karst resource. In 1999, the designation of a Ramsar zone around the Škocjan Caves confrmed the authorities’ commitment to this ‘whole-karst approach’. Te Ramsar convention was originally drawn up to protect “wetlands that are important on an international scale, particularly as habitats for water birds”, but its terms of application were extended in May 1999 to cover all forms of internationally important wetlands. By providing the means to guarantee the quantity and quality of the water feeding the Škocjan system, the managing body has ensured the protection of the karst resource, at least in terms of its underground waters. In 2004, this action was completed by the launch of a MAB project, which confrmed the status of the bufer zone on the Illirska Bistrica side as defned by the 1996 Act and which set up a new zoning system with creation of a 14,780 ha transition zone. Tis zone covers the Di-vaca district (district that contains the Škocjan Caves following the reorganisation of local authority boundaries in 1992), which was not included in the 1996 bufer zone. Te MAB programme provides the regional park with the means to coordinate eforts to control local hydrolog-ical processes, develop sustainable farming practices and preserve the caves by limiting surface water pollution through the controlled use of fertilizers and the management of waste water fows. As a result, the MAB project covers an area of no less than 60,193 ha. Te 1986 UNESCO classifcation, the 1996 Act, the 1999 Ramsar Convention and the 2004 MAB project cover all the diferent facets of the Škocjan Caves karst landscape: the natural monument with exceptional karst formations of archaeological, historical and ethnological value, the protection of underground water resources and the sustainable management of infltration water on the plateau by maintaining traditional farming techniques. Currently, two projects for extending this protection dynamic are being studied. Te frst concerns the enlargement of the regional park’s boundaries to include neighbouring districts such as Naklo, Brežec, Gradišče. Tis extension has been sought by the inhabitants of 30 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 TOURISM AND PRESERVATION POLICIES IN KARST AREAS: COMPARISON BETwEEN THE ŠKOCJAN CAVES ... map 4: Spatial extension of preservation areas around Škocjan caves. these districts, who would like to be included within the park in order to beneft from the subsidies available for renovating housing and farm buildings. Little by little the park is increasing its territory. Te second project involves a major extension to the UNESCO site, increasing its area by approximately 50,000 ha, thereby protecting the entire Kras plateau, which the Slovenian authorities consider extremely vulnerable due to its karst characteristics. Tis new area could be classifed as a cultural landscape, combining the caves and other karst features, traditional architec- ture, the Lipica stud farm with its Lippizaner horses, and traditional forms of agriculture such as wine growing. with an eye on preparing for this classifcation, several key projects have been, or are being carried out. Most are aimed at developing small-scale heritage, such as nature trails around collapse dolines (Divaca), livestock farming (Pliskovica) and outstanding monuments (Komen, Štanjel). Tese projects are gradually providing the area with a tourist structure and creating a network of tourist fows, mostly centred round the Škocjan Caves. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES Te Škocjan Caves and the Ardeche Gorge present two faces of the karst resource preservation/development dialectic and their comparative study is interesting on several levels. Te two sites present similarities in terms of tourism development and the implementation of protection measures: both sites began to be perceived as tourist attractions at about the same time, i.e. during the 19th century, and both beneft from protection measures introduced at the beginning of the 1980s. Nevertheless, the numerous diferences between the sites give an insight into the diferent ways in which the preservation/development couplet is viewed. when examined from this preservation/development perspective, the diferences in the ways the two sites are managed can be traced through a diachronic approach to the history of their tourism development. Te combination of several factors (accessibility, development of water sports, etc) rapidly led to the Ar-ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 – 2006 31 MéLANIE DUVAL deche Gorge becoming what some people have dubbed the “Mecca of canoeing”. Although the enthusiasm for water sports was present throughout the 20th century, its development was facilitated by the completion of the Ardeche Gorge tourist road in 1969. Today, the Ardeche Gorge accounts for 2/3 of the ‘département’s’ tourism business, whether it is measured in terms of the accommodation ofer, the number of bed-nights, or the turnover of the diferent sectors of the tourism market. As this thriving tourism industry already existed when the Ardeche Gorge Natural Reserve was created, the reserve’s statute had to take into account the interests of all the affected parties. As a result, the reserve appears to be a very fexible compromise between tourism and preservation. To a large extent, this historical and economic context explains the difculties in setting up the reserve and, most notably, the fact that a management plan was not drawn up until twenty years afer the reserve was created! Te context in which the protection measures for the Škocjan Caves were introduced was very diferent. Confronted with major pollution problems from the industry in the Reka basin upstream from the caves, but benefting from the Yugoslav Federal Committee’s strong desire to obtain UNESCO classifcation for certain sites within the Yugoslavian Republics, the Škocjan Caves were inscribed on the list of world heritage sites in 1986. Tis protection measure was then reinforced by a specifc law creating the Škocjan Caves Regional Park in 1996. Tourism in the Škocjan Caves areas is viewed very diferently to the way it is seen in the Ardeche Gorge. Firstly, the Škocjan area receives far fewer visitors; hence the economic stakes are much lower. Furthermore, at the beginning of the 1980s tourism development around the Škocjan Caves was carried out with two contradictory objectives: become a structuring tourist attraction for the whole of the Kras region but, at the same time, prevent any “anarchic” development. Tis dual position led to the drawing up of the 1996 Act, which gave the park’s managing body the means to implement a global development programme. Te 1996 Act, together with the Ramsar Convention and the MAB programme, enable the Škocjan Caves Regional Park to carry out actions concerning diferent aspects of the karst resource: natural heritage, cultural heritage, preservation of water resources, maintenance of traditional agriculture, awareness-raising and educational programmes for the general public, etc. Gradually, the Škocjan Caves area is positioning itself as a model site, a shop window onto the principles of sustainable development. On a more general level, the diferences between the two sites are also due to their diferent approaches to the management of karst resources. A comparison of the general legislation relating to environmental protection in Slovenia and in France shows that Slovenia has taken specifc measures to protect karst areas, whereas France considers karsts to be just another part of the natural environment, alongside coastlines and mountain areas. In Slovenian law, specifc protection has been given to karst areas both by the Environmental Protection Act of 1999 and by the Nature Conservation Act of 1999. For example, article 4 of the 1999 Nature Conservation Act defnes karst phenomena as being part of Slovenia’s national heritage and therefore worthy of special protection. Slovenia’s specifc approach to karst landscapes could be ascribed to the extent of such formations in Slovenia: more than 44% of the country is composed of karst phenomena, ranging from alpine karsts to dinaric and pre-alpine karsts. As a result, 75% of the protected areas in Slovenia, whether they are national parks, regional parks or other types of protected area, are karst landscapes. However, the extent of karst landscapes is not suf-fcient to explain Slovenia’s readiness to protect this type of resource. In fact, the proportion of karst landscapes in France is similar to that in Slovenia (“karsts account for between a third and a quarter of the land area of France”, Nicod J., 1995, p.21), but France’s karst resources are not subject to specifc protection measures. In contrast, since 2003, Slovenia has reinforced the protection given to karst areas through a new law cov-erning the protection of caves. Te law’s objective is to classify Slovenia’s 8,726 known caves into three categories: caves open to visitors, caves that are semi-closed and monitored, and caves that are only open to scientists. An approach that has got certain French karstologists dreaming… 32 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 TOURISM AND PRESERVATION POLICIES IN KARST AREAS: COMPARISON BETwEEN THE ŠKOCJAN CAVES ... REFERENCES Daudé G., 1986: Tourisme et nature: a travers l’exemple des Gorges de l’Ardeche, in Revue Géographie Lyon, pp.409-440. Du Boys A, 1842: Album du Vivarais, éd. Ch. Vellot and Cie, 271p. Habe F., 1984: International Symposium “Protection of the Karst on the 160th anniversary of Škocjanske jame”, Lipica 7th-9th October 1982, 112p. IUCN, 1986: Documentation sur les biens (naturels) du patrimoine mondial, les grottes de Škocjan, non paginé. Kečkemet D., 1978: Louis François Cassas et ses illustrations de l’Istrie and de la Dalmatie (1782), in RAD Jugoslavenske Akademije znanosti i umjetnosti, éd. Jugoslavenske Akademije znanosti i umjetnosti, Zagreb, pp.198-200. Kranjc A., 2002: Historical Overview and description of the Caves, in the Škocjan Caves Regional Park, pp.42-54. Martel E. A., 1913: Montagne, CAF revue, n°8, pp.433457. Martel E. A., 1894: Les abîmes, les eaux souterraines, les cavernes, les sources, la spélaeologie, explorations souterraines efectuées de 1888 a 1893 en France, Belgique, Autriche et Grece, éd. Librairie Charles Delagrave, Paris, 576p. Mihevc A., 2004: Development of the tourist pathways in Škocjanske jame, in International Show Caves Association, International Congress “Use of modern technologies in the development of caves for tourism”, pp.117-120. Nicod J., 1995: Carte géomorphologique des karsts de France, notice d’une maquette au 1/ 3 000 000 environ, Karstologia n°25, pp.21-34. Ofce National du Tourisme (ONT), 2002: Les sites tour-istiques en France métropolitaine. Fréquentations 1994-2000, coll. Analyses and perspectives du tour-isme, n°74. Peyrache-Gadeau V. , 2004: Ressources patrimoniales – Milieux innovateurs, Variation des durabilités des territoires, Actes du colloque : La notion de ressource territoriale a l’occasion des 10 ans du Cer-mosem, 14th and 15th October 2004, Domaine Olivier de Serres, 15p. “Syndicat de Gestion des Gorges de l’Ardeche”, 1999: Plan de gestion des Ardeche Gorge, document interne de la réserve, 139p. Vourc’h A. and Natali J.-M., 2000: Sites naturels: contribution du tourisme a leur gestion et a leur entretien, éd. AFIT, 139 p. Zorman T., 2004: Škocjanske jame in the past and today, in International Show Caves Association, International Congress “Use of modern technologies in the development of caves for tourism”, pp.111-116. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 33 MéLANIE DUVAL LEGISLATION In France: Statutory order n°80-27 of 14th January 1980 creating the Ardeche Gorge Natural Reserve (Ardeche and Gard ‘départements’) Statutory order listing the area around the Pont d’Arc as an area of outstanding natural beauty 24th February 1982. Order relating to the inscription of the Ardeche Gorge in the Register of Listed Sites, 15th January 1943. Order relating to the classifcation of the Saint-Marcel Cave, 26th June 1934. Order relating to the classifcation of the Pont d’Arc, 24th January 1931. In Slovenia: Škocjan Caves Regional Park Act, 1st October 1996. Environmental Protection Act, 1993, Te Republic of Slovenia Nature Conservation Act, 1999, Te Republic of Slovenia Act n°76-629 of 10th July 1976 relating to the protection of the natural environment Act of 2nd May 1930 relating to the protection of natural monuments and sites of exceptional artistic, historic, scientifc, legendary or scenic interest, Ofcial Journal of 4th May 1930. Objects The Škocjan Caves Ardeche Gorge Object(s) covered by the protection The caves and the collapse dolines+ The gorge and surrounding karst plateaux Current management body Public Agency for the Škocjan Caves ‘Syndicat de Gestion des Gorges de l’Ardeche’ Beginning of tourism 1782: Cassas’ engravings 1842: “Album du Vivarais” by Albert du Boys Number of visitors 89,700 visitors in 2004 1.5 million visitors for the gorge and the surrounding karst plateaux in 2005 Protection measures 1980: Protection order passed by Sezana council 1982: motion adopted during the international symposium “Protection of the Karst on the 160th anniversary of Škocjanske jame” 1986: UNESCO inscription 1996: ‘Škocjan Caves Regional Park’ Act 1931: classifcation of the Pont d’Arc 1934: classifcation of the Saint-Marcel Cave 1943: listing of the Ardeche Gorge 1969: adoption of a development plan: the gorge is classifed as a no-construction zone 1980: order creating the Ardeche Gorge Natural Reserve 1982: classifcation of the area surrounding the Pont d’Arc 1992: biotope order for the Dent de Rez Protected areas 200ha: UNESCO area 1986 413ha: central zone of the regional park 1996 45,000ha: bufer zone of the regional park 1996 14,780ha: transition zone of the MAB programme 2004 50,000ha: project for UNESCO classifcation 1,575 ha: area of the natural reserve 1980 1,040 ha: area surrounding the Pont d’Arc 3,500 ha: biotope order for the Dent de Rez 1992. Placed under the responsibility of the SGGA in 1997 13,000 ha: area of neighbouring ‘communes’ 1997 Related programmes 1999: Ramsar Convention 2004: MAB 2004: General Water Development Plan (SAGE) 2006: ‘rural excellence pole’? table 1: Comparison between the Škocjan Caves and the Ardeche Gorge. 34 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 TOURISM AND PRESERVATION POLICIES IN KARST AREAS: COMPARISON BETwEEN THE ŠKOCJAN CAVES ... TOURISME ET MESURES DE PRéSERVATION a L’éCHELLE DES AIRES KARSTIqUES : COMPARAISON ENTRE LES GORGES DE L’ARDECHE (FRANCE) ET LES GROTTES DE ŠKOCJAN (SLOVéNIE) RéSUMé Cet article a pour objectif de présenter deux des orientations que peut prendre le développement touristique d’espaces karstiques, présentement la Réserve Naturelle des Gorges de l’Ardeche (France), et le Parc Régional des Grottes de Škocjan (Slovénie). Support de fux touris-tiques majeurs, ces deux espaces se sont progressivement structurés autour d’une activité touristique, tout en étant le théâtre de politiques d’aménagement et de protection de la ressource karstique. Depuis les débuts de la mise en tourisme de ces deux espaces, un processus dialectique s’est progressivement institué entre préservation et valorisation, amenant a la création de deux espaces touristiques protégés. Pour au-tant, entre préservation de la ressource et mise en valeur de cette derniere, force est de constater qu’il n’existe pas UN équilibre mais que chaque espace concerné s’auto-ré-gule selon des caractéristiques qui lui sont propres et qui évoluent. Cette approche comparative nous amene ainsi a envisager les formes que peut prendre cet équilibre pré-caire et a présenter deux manieres diférentes de consi-dérer la gestion d’espaces karstiques touristiques. L’intéret d’une approche comparative en géographie est de pouvoir porter des regards croisés sur un meme objet, en vue de faire ressortir des éléments explicatifs et de porter notre réfexion sur des processus. En ce sens, force est de constater que ces deux sites ofrent des similitudes tant du point de vue de leur développement touristique que de la mise en place de mesures de protection : tous deux ont commencé a etre perçus comme des curiosités touristiques a peu pres a la meme période, soit courant du 19eme siecle ; tous deux ont bénéfcié de mesures de protection au début des années 1980. Pour autant, nombres de diférences peuvent etre constatées, lesquelles permettent d’expliciter ce rapport au couple préservation/ valorisation touristique. Dans ce registre, une approche diachronique de l’histoire de leur mise en tourisme permet de comprendre en partie les diférences de gestion de ces deux sites. La combinai-son de plusieurs facteurs (accessibilité, développement des pratiques sportives d’eaux vives, etc.) ont rapidement conduit les gorges de l’Ardeche a devenir ce que certains appellent la « Mecque du canoë-kayak ». Cet engouement manifeste tout au long du 20eme siecle s’est alors confrmé suite a la construction de la route touristique des gorges de l’Ardeche en 1969. Dans cette perspective, la création de la Réserve Naturelle des Gorges s’est sur-imposée a une activité touristique importante. Ménageant les intérets de chacun, cette réserve apparaît comme un compromis tres souple entre activité touristique et préservation de la nature. Ce contexte historique et économique explique alors en partie les difcultés que la Réserve a rencontrées lors de sa mise en place, et notamment le fait qu’il s’est écoulé pas loin de vingt ans entre sa date de création et la rédaction d’un plan de gestion ! Comparativement, la mise en place des mesures de protection a l’échelle des grottes de Škocjan s’inscrit dans une logique diférente. Confrontées d’une part a des pro-blemes de pollution industrielle importants en amont du bassin versant de la Reka et se situant d’autre part dans le contexte politique d’une inscription Unesco des Répub-liques de Yougoslavie porté par le comité fédéral Yougo-slave, les grottes de Škocjan sont inscrites en 1986 sur la liste du patrimoine mondial ; cette premiere mesure se doublera par l’adoption d’une loi singuliere portant créa-tion du Parc Régional des Grottes de Škocjan en 1996. L’interprétation de la dimension touristique est ici diférente de celle constatée a l’échelle des gorges de l’Ardeche. Dans un premier temps, ce site connaît une fréquentation touristique moindre et les enjeux économiques ne sont pas du meme ordre que ceux ob-servés a l’échelle des gorges. Par ailleurs, en terme de développement touristique, deux orientations contradic-toires sont formulées au début des années 1980 : devenir un site touristique structurant pour l’ensemble du Kras et en meme temps, se prémunir de tout développement « anarchique ». Ce double positionnement conduira a la rédaction de la loi de 1996, laquelle donne les moyens a la structure gestionnaire du Parc de conduire une poli-tique d’aménagement globale. Ce dispositif, complété par la suite par la convention Ramsar et le programme MAB, permet aujourd’hui au Parc Régional des grottes de Škocjan de conduire des actions sur les diférents volets de la ressource karstique : patrimoine naturel, cul-turel, préservation de la ressource en eau, maintien d’une agriculture traditionnelle, programmes de sensibilisation et d’éducation a l’encontre d’un large public, etc. progres-sivement, les grottes de Škocjan se positionnent en tant que site référent, espace vitrine de l’application des prin-cipes du développement durable. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 35 COBISS: 1.01 THE CONCEPTS OF HERITAGE AND HERITAGE RESOURCE APPLIED TO KARSTS: PROTECTING THE CHORANCHE CAVES (VERCORS, FRANCE) ZAMISLI O DEDIŠčINI IN NJENIH VIRIH PRIREJENIH ZA KRAS: VAROVANJE JAM CHORANCHE (VERCORS, FRANCIJA) Christophe GAUCHON1, Estelle PLOYON1, Jean-Jacques DELANNOY1, Sébastien HACqUARD1, Fabien HOBLéA1, Stéphane JAILLET1, Yves PERRETTE1 Abstract UDC 551.442(44) Christophe Gauchon, Estelle Ployon, Jean-Jacques Delan-noy, Sébastien Hacquard, Fabien Hobléa, Stéphane Jaillet & Yves Perrette: Te concepts of heritage and heritage resource applied to karsts: Protecting the Choranche caves (Vercors, France) In 2005, French Ministry of Ecology started procedure to inscribe 18 Caves of Chorance into the world Heritage list of UNESCO. Te application has to answer to three objectives: the scientifc interest, defnition of the territory, and to propose the management model. For the frst all the heritage sources has to be identifed, such as fowstone formations, karst water objects and historical curiosities. Tis are very important and sensitive questions specially because they have been not answered before the procedure of the inscription started of. key-words: karst heritage, karst protection, show cave, classi-fed natural site, caves of Choranche, Vercors, France. Izvleček UDK 551.442(44) Christophe Gauchon, Estelle Ployon, Jean-Jacques Delannoy, Sébastien Hacquard, Fabien Hobléa, Stéphane Jaillet & Yves Perrette: Zamisli o dediščini in njenih virih prirejenih za kras: varovanje jam Choranche (Vercors, Francija) 2005 je francosko Ministrstvo za okolje pričelo postopek za vpis 18 jam okoli Choranche za vpis v svetovno dediščino pri UNESCO. Vloga mora odgovoriti trem merilom: znanstvenemu pomenu, opredelitvi ozemlja in predlagati način upravljanja. Predvsem je bilo treba ugotoviti vse vire dediščine, kot so kapniki, kraški vodni objekti in zgodovinske zanimivosti. To je zelo pomembno in občutljivo vprašanje, še posebej, ker to ni bilo opravljeno, preden je bil sprožen postopek za vpis. ključne besede: kraška dediščina, varstvo krasa, turistična jama, zaščitena naravna vrednota, jame Choranche, Vercors, Francija. INTRODUCTION Although France has ofen played a pioneering role in the exploration and study of caves, the country has done very little to protect the heritage resources of its karst areas. At present, there is no specifc legislation covering the protection of karst landscapes - caves and swallow holes can only be protected under general environmental protection laws. Some karsts have been listed as historic monuments, others are protected for their biotopes, four caves have been declared nature reserves and a few hundred others have been classifed as “natural sites and monu- ments”. Te law relating to this fnal category dates back to 1930 and applies to lakes, waterfalls, peat bogs and coastal dunes, as well as to caverns. Te central tenet of this legislation is expressed in Article 12, which stipulates that the “owner of a classifed site cannot destroy or modify the state or appearance of that site” without special authorisation. Tus, protection measures are applied on a case-by-case basis, as opportunities arise, and the choice of sites is strongly infuenced by the specifc interests of the civil servants responsible for the environment. 1Laboratoire EDYTEM-University of Savoie, Chambéry, France. e-mail: christophe.gauchon@univ-savoie.fr Received / Prejeto: 04.10.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2, 37–46, LJUBLJANA 2006 CHRISTOPHE GAUCHON, ESTELLE PLOYON, JEAN-JACqUES DELANNOY, SéBASTIEN HACqUARD, ... No better illustration of the conservation situation for France’s karst heritage can be found than the Cho-ranche Caves network, in the Vercors Mountains. Tese caves have been explored for over a century and are the most important underground tourist attraction in the French Alps. Tey feature in every tourist guide and have been the subject of several television programmes; hence, they are quite well known. Dozens of postcards show the forests of soda-straws hanging from the cave roof refected in the green waters of Lake Coufn. Despite these attri- butes, the site is not covered by any protection measures: only the careful stewardship of the site’s owner-managers has maintained the caves in their current condition. A catalogue of the area’s main heritage resources has been drawn up as part of the process of granting the area list-ed-status and introducing ofcial protection measures. However, the numerous objections to the protection proposals show how difcult it can be to protect any area, even a site of universally accepted importance, such as Choranche. CONTEXT In August 2005, the Rhône-Alpes “Direction Régionale de l’Environnement”, acting on behalf of the Minister of Ecology, launched a call for tenders for the production of an environmental protection dossier for the “Choranche Caves, surface and subsoil”. At the end of the tendering procedure, the bid entered by the EDYTEM laboratory was chosen. Unusually, the proposal to protect the Choranche Caves was not a response to a clear and immediate threat to the area or the karst system. In this case, the protection process was started as a preliminary step in achieving UNESCO world Heritage status for Choranche and seventeen other French stalactite and stalagmite caves: UNESCO will only accept nominations for sites already protected by the State sponsoring the nomination and this is not the case for some of the caves concerned, including the Choranche Caves. Te 18 caves nominated for UNESCO listing were chosen solely on the basis of the formations they contain, either for their variety (colours, shapes, mineralogy), fragility, rarity or aesthetic quality. Although concretions are relatively abundant throughout the Choranche network, the UNESCO nomination specifcally cites the tourist part of the Coufn Cave because of its rich ornamentation. However, it immediately became apparent that in order to efectively protect the site, the protection measures would have to cover a much more extensive area than this one cave. Te Choranche Caves consist of a network of more than 40 km of explored passages, divided into two main and parallel networks (Coufn-Chevaline and Gournier) and containing three underground rivers. Te Coufn Cave has been open to tourists since 1967. It remains a popular attraction, although visitor numbers peaked, at more than 200,000 visitors per year, at the beginning of the 1990s. In addition, groups led by State-qualifed cave guides frequently visit the Gournier Cave. Te network is well understood due to more than 40 years of intense scientifc study. On the surface, the Coulmes Plateau also contains a wide range of features that, in our opinion, should be included in the protection dossier. Te environment in which these networks have developed cannot be ignored. Te Coulmes Plateau, on the north-western edge of the Vercors, is a true backwater: away from the main through-routes, extremely isolated and with apparently limited potential. Te project to give the site listed status is not designed to protect the area from any particular threat; however, it has raised fears amongst some local politicians that it will one day be used to stop future development projects. In fact, the plateau is seen as a neglected area whose development (for example, connection to mains services) is lagging behind that of the villages in the Gorges de la Bourne. Te question that arises is whether listing the site will increase the divisions between the gorges and the plateau or enhance their complementarity. Tis is why any protection measures must take into account social and local geo-political considerations, as well as environmental and heritage aspects. OBJECTIVES Given the above context, the specifcation laid down by the “Direction Régionale de l’Environnement” stipulated that EDYTEM’s work should be divided into a number of phases, to ensure the listing procedure is completed as quickly as possible. 38 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 THE CONCEPTS OF HERITAGE AND HERITAGE RESOURCE APPLIED TO KARSTS: PROTECTING THE CHORANCHE CAVES ... First, it was necessary to establish that the site was of “general interest from an artistic, historic, scientifc, legendary or picturesque point of view” (art. 4 of the Act of 1930). As the contract covered both the surface and the subsoil, this assessment work had to be applied to the underground karst networks as well as to the external landscapes. Te artistic and legendary aspects were quickly eliminated, as they are of little importance in this case. Tat lef the historic, scientifc and picturesque dimensions, for which there is a wealth of documentation establishing the heritage value of the Choranche Caves and the Coulmes Plateau. Te heritage resources within each of these categories are examined in more detail below. Next, it was necessary to establish an appropriate, coherent and acceptable protection perimeter. Tis turned out to be a very sensitive issue. In France, the protection given to karst areas rarely covers entire karst networks unless the system in question contains caves with exceptionally important archaeological remains or cave paintings. Tere are no accepted standards in cases where karsts are protected for their aesthetic value and to preserve the landscape. Protection measures are generally determined by the beauty of the site and only the land containing the cave is protected, which is a highly unsatisfactory state of afairs. In order to ascertain how the terms of the 1930 Act can be used to give efective protection to karsts, it is necessary to understand what a karst is and how its diferent elements interact. Should the entire cave be protected, or only the part seen by tourists? For the Coufn, Chevaline and Gournier springs, should protection be limited to the hydrogeological watershed or should the listed area cover the entire karst, with its numerous caverns, its landscapes and all its heritage re- fig. 1: visitors in a galery in Coufn cave, postcard, beginning of XXth century. sources? Tese questions were to become central to the ensuing public debates. Te “Direction Régionale de l’Environnement” also recommended writing management guidelines for the listed area, taking into account all the activities carried out in the massif. In fact, the 1930 Act does not specify which types of development should be allowed or prohibited in a listed area. Terefore, listing the site must be allied with a series of recommendations, based on the specifcities of the listed area, that will provide the local authorities with criteria on which to base decisions on whether to authorise future development projects. Te protection measures must take into account the farming, forestry, permanent dwellings and numerous sports activities (cross-country skiing, hiking, caving, climbing, hunting, etc) that currently coexist in the Coulmes Plateau area, as the aim is not to stop these activities but to ensure they can continue without damaging the environment. Hence, it is necessary to defne the rules that will govern each activity, the types of development compatible with preserving the area and those that are totally unacceptable. Tis work requires detailed consultations with all the parties involved. Finally, once this work was completed, the EDY-TEM team were required to draw up documents presenting the area to be protected and its heritage resources (poster + small pamphlet) for the general public. A certain amount of expertise was needed for determining the karst resources and landscapes to be protected. However, it was also necessary to take into account the afects of the protection measures on the numerous interests impacted by the project. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 39 CHRISTOPHE GAUCHON, ESTELLE PLOYON, JEAN-JACqUES DELANNOY, SéBASTIEN HACqUARD, ... wORKING METHODS Te EDYTEM team brought together experts with the diferent but complementary skills that would be needed to successfully complete the various phases of the project. work began by carrying out a survey of the extensive literature on the massif and its karst network produced by cavers, archaeologists, palaeontologists, ethnologists specialising in local history and, of course, karst geographers. In addition, cavers from the “département” of Isere (Comité Départemental de Spéléologie), with whom EDYTEM has long had a good working relationship, provided cave inventories and topographical surveys. Tis data formed the basis for a comprehensive atlas of the network that includes information on the plateau’s heritage resources, current protection measures (Natura 2000 zones, special bird protection areas, etc) and existing economic activities, etc. Te mapping work was completed by a photographic survey of the area (including work by professional photographers) showing the under- ground and surface landscapes. Tese documents were drawn up for use during the steering committee’s meetings with the various interested parties, in order to show how work was progressing, as well as for inclusion in the classifcation dossier. Compiling the protection dossier and management guidelines required detailed consultations with local interests and numerous information and fact-fnding meetings with all the interested parties. Strenuous eforts were made to take into account all forms of land-use and to avoid needlessly upsetting people, so as not to create unnecessary difculties. Te most delicate part of this consultation phase was presenting the boundaries of the proposed protection area, as every interested party found reason to object, based on their own interests and their own perception of the area. Hence, the scientifc work had to take into account the local interests that were uncovered as the project progressed. STAKES Te most important sector to be afected by the project to list the Choranche Caves and the Coulmes Plateau will undoubtedly be tourism. Te operator of the Choranche Caves has always supported the protection project because the prospect of being awarded UNESCO world Heritage status is seen as a marvellous opportunity to give a much-needed boost to the site. Te Choranche Caves are the biggest pay-to-enter tourist attraction in the Vercors Mountains and the only one to be open all year round; the area’s other tourist sites are all highly seasonal with summer and winter peaks. Visitors are also attracted to the area around the caves by outdoor sports, such as rock climbing on the clifs at Presles (which have been popular with climbers since the 1970s), cross-country skiing and hiking. As a result, there are several accommodation providers on the plateau and in the village of Choranche. when asked, local people are unanimously in favour of these outdoor activities, as they are seen as a source of jobs, but this does not prevent conficts between visitors and locals over issues such as parking and access to the climbs. Te plateau’s local councillors sometimes seem more concerned by any nuisance caused to farmers than by the economic benefts gained by the area’s accommodation providers. Te public debates have shown greater disagreement than expected over the tourism issue, with not everyone in the area considering it a priority. It has become apparent that local attitudes to the protection project are shaped by individual opinions on tourism. In addition, the introduction of protection measures as a step towards obtaining UNESCO world Heritage status is seen as a double-edged sword. If the French government’s UNESCO project succeeds, almost everyone agrees the benefts will be positive. However, opponents argue that if the UNESCO project fails, listing the site will hinder any form of development on the plateau. Tis standpoint results from a deep misunderstanding of the need to protect this karst environment and the blind opposition of the plateau’s politicians and the valley’s inhabitants. Te biggest fear, which has been expressed very clearly, is that nearly all the project’s benefts will go to Choranche, as tourist fows will be channelled through the gorge to the caves. Consequently, the villages on the plateau will be subject to restrictions that will constrain their development, without receiving any of the benefts. Tese territorial difer-ences in opinion are exacerbated by diferences in peoples’ mentalities. Te people of Choranche have long appreciated the benefts brought by tourism, starting with a spa that thrived from the 19th century until the 1930s. On the other hand, the plateau’s inhabitants feel as though they have only ever received the crumbs lef afer Choranche has eaten most of the tourist cake. Presles’ elected representatives have particular difculty in understanding that it is up to them to fnd ways in which to reap benefts from 40 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 THE CONCEPTS OF HERITAGE AND HERITAGE RESOURCE APPLIED TO KARSTS: PROTECTING THE CHORANCHE CAVES ... fig. 2: Choranche cirque and the location of main caves, drawn by Oscar décombaz, 1898. being listed a world Heritage site; it is their responsibility to ensure Choranche does not take all the pickings. Tere is also a confict between the plateau and the gorge over the issue of water, another element that is central to this project. Although everyone agrees on the importance of water, there are deep disagreements about how this resource should be used. Terefore, water’s place in the system must be defned: as well as being a resource for the local population, it is an essential part of the area’s heritage that must be preserved. For example, during the 1990s, Presles council proposed drilling through the plateau to tap into the Gournier underground river in order to resolve its chronic water shortage problems. Te project was only abandoned, albeit provisionally, when local cavers proved it technically unfeasible. Tis was a bitter disappointment for the plateau’s politicians, who are reluctant to defnitively discard the idea. However, diverting these waters could not be authorised under any protection scheme, as the Gournier feeds the famous tufa falls that form such an important part of the site’s landscape. If a water extraction scheme were to be permitted, the largest reductions in water fows would be in summer and it is in summer, when air temperatures are relatively high, that the Gournier’s waters deposit the greatest fig. 3: Sketch of the Coulmes Plateau by Oscar décombaz, 1899, with location of caves and pot-holes (scialets). amount of tufa. Tere is an enormous gulf between those who perceive water as a resource to protect and those who regard it as a resource to exploit. Although positions on this issue are rarely explicitly stated, they have played a central role in the debates over the protection project. Paradoxically, the waterfalls themselves cannot be protected under the terms of the 1930 Act, as the Act cannot protect water, only the landscape surrounding it. Hence the importance of the management guidelines, which will include precise recommendations on how the water is to be protected. A traditional “water culture”, as is found in Mediterranean karst areas, has not developed in the Vercors Mountains. Tis may be due to the area having a particularly humid climate (Ppn > 2000mm) in which, historically, there has been little need to conserve what is seen as an abundant resource. As a result, when faced with increases in demand, both for agricultural and for domestic use, the only solution local politicians were able to envisage was to fnd other sources to increase the supply to users. CHORANCHE’S KARST RESOURCES A comprehensive inventory, in the form of themed data sheets, of all the karst resources to be found in the Cho-ranche area was drawn up for inclusion in the protection dossier. without reproducing the full inventory, we would like to give an idea of the diversity and richness of the heritage resources of the Choranche Caves and the Coulmes Plateau. CAVE FORMATIONS Te original motivation behind the UNESCO world Heritage project was a desire to protect and promote the area’s cave formations, including the spectacular Coufn soda straws that have made Choranche famous. Given their aesthetic qualities and the role they play in attract-ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 – 2006 41 CHRISTOPHE GAUCHON, ESTELLE PLOYON, JEAN-JACqUES DELANNOY, SéBASTIEN HACqUARD, ... ing tourists to the Choranche Caves, agreement on the need to preserve these exceptional formations was immediate and unanimous. Even if visitors to the caves only take away one memory, it is of the thousands of strands of “spaghetti” refected in the waters of the lake and river at Coufn. For many years, the tourist route through the cave has been screened by windows in order to protect the formations from direct damage. However, a wider preservation area will have to be defned if these formations are to be given more global protection. Tis has proven to be a very delicate issue. Although the UNESCO presentation dossier only specifcally covers the cave formations, these formations cannot be preserved unless the environment in which they formed is protected. But, how extensive should this protected area be? Should it only cover the land immediately above the caverns? Or should it include the area that feeds water to the formations, in so far as it can be defned, bearing in mind that the strati-fcation of the rock will doubtlessly create areas of lateral transfer? Or should it extend to the entire hydrogeologi-cal system? Scientists must provide precise answers to these questions - answers on which to base clear and coherent arguments that will convince sceptics. Given the need to protect a large area of the karst in order to protect the cave formations, it is unfortunate that the UNESCO proposal only explicitly mentions the “formation-bearing caves”. Tis has proved to be a major obstacle to the protection process, as it enables opponents to argue that only the soda straws themselves should be listed. However, because of the way in which karst systems work, a much more extensive area must be protected if the formations are to be properly preserved. Hence, the idea of listing the “formation-bearing caves” may actually work against the protection of the karst system: something that the promoters of the project undoubtedly never imagined. THE KARST SYSTEMS Te karst systems themselves are utterly remarkable. In fact, there are three perched systems, with no saturated zones, cut by the incision of the Gorges de la Bourne. Other similar systems can be found in the French Pre-Alps, but the three aligned springs at the foot of the Coul-mes escarpment are particularly spectacular. Cavers have followed and mapped the underground rivers over distances of several kilometres, following the River Gourni-er, for example, for almost six kilometres under the plateau to its terminus 680 metres above the spring. Tese systems are made up of highly complex networks of tunnels and chambers of all shapes and sizes. For instance, the Gournier Cave boasts a subterranean river that fows beneath a vast fossil gallery, the galleries of the Coufn Cave form a true labyrinth and the River Chevaline fows over a succession of large gours before emerging at a spring that is uniquely gravity-fed. Although most of the parties concerned by the protection project are aware of these underground landscapes, they have little idea of their diversity. One of the objectives of the photographic survey of the area is to raise awareness of this difcult-to-visualise dimension. PALAEONTOLOGICAL, ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL REMAINS Palaeontological, archaeological and historical remains: Large quantities of fossils, particularly the remains of bears, have been found in some of the caves on the plateau (especially the Pré l’Etang cave) and in the upper fossil levels of the Coufn Cave. Te Pré l’Etang deposit has been intensively studied; however, the Bear Gallery in the Coufn Cave, which is at the end of the known network and very difcult to reach, has never been visited by palaeontologists. Despite being discovered by some of the cave’s earliest explorers, the species of bears to be found there have never been described. In addition, explorations of some of the cavities in the rocks of the Choranche Cirque have revealed prehistoric remains, but undoubtedly not enough for the Cultural Afairs Department to classify these rock shelters as “historic monuments”. As well as these prehistoric remains, there are archaeological relics from the more recent past, such as those lef by the plateau’s charcoal burners, including settlements that have been abandoned since the beginning of the 20th century. In the caves themselves, and especially in the Balme Etrange, signatures dating back to the 1830s can be found on the walls: proof of the long history of tourism in the Choranche Cirque and confrmation of some of the information found during the literature survey. Terefore, the historic interest of the site cannot be denied. EXO-KARSTIC STRUCTURES AND FORMATIONS Exo-karstic structures and formations are extremely abundant, providing a link between the scientifc and picturesque interests of the site. Te Choranche Cirque contains the most spectacular formations, most notably the large tufa fows that dot the Gournier stream. About ten years ago, the visitor trail was extended to include these tufa fows and signposts were erected to explain how they formed and their palaeoenvironmental signifcance. On the plateau, such formations are usually less easily visible because of the dense forest cover, but they are just as interesting. Te Pot Siva area contains a group of roofess caves that can be explored and that contain the remains of speleothems. Despite being particularly well developed, the cone karst, which provides evidence of the phases of karst formation during the Tertiary, cannot easily be seen due to the lack of a viewpoint overlooking the 42 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 THE CONCEPTS OF HERITAGE AND HERITAGE RESOURCE APPLIED TO KARSTS: PROTECTING THE CHORANCHE CAVES ... whole area. In fact, this is the only part of the Vercors to contain such a diversity of karst structures, and this alone should provide sufcient justifcation for listing the area. THE LANDSCAPE RESOURCE Te landscape resource: In addition to the elements mentioned above, the landscape as a whole exudes a special atmosphere that adds to the area’s beauty. Tis atmosphere mostly comes from the stark contrasts that characterise the area: the juxtaposition of gorge and plateau, barren clifs and luxuriant undergrowth, narrow defles and open plateaux, dark caverns and luminous cirques, and the abrupt transitions between the vertical and the horizontal. Te spectacular view of the Cirque de Cho-ranche from the caves car park always makes a vivid impression on visitors; however, it is important to make them realise that they will only get a complete picture of the area’s natural wealth if they continue their excur- Current French law and Department of the Environment guidelines contain fve criteria for assessing whether protecting a site is in the general interest. Te Choranche Caves and Coulmes Plateau satisfy three of these fve criteria; therefore, the task of producing a protection dossier should have been very straightforward. In fact, a number of obstacles quickly appeared, including the refusal by some local people to accept the recommendations of the experts who are compiling the dossier. Surmounting these problems will probably be extremely difcult as they are based on fears that listing the area will seriously hamper development without providing signifcant benefts. Although the 1930 Act defnes the introduction of protection measures as a purely administrative procedure, in practice it requires a participative approach involving the local population: a reality that does not always make life easy. In addition, the public debate on the protection project provided a forum for expressing old frustrations that were not necessarily connected with the protection project. Reactions may have been particularly sion onto the plateau. By doing this, they will also be able to appreciate the variety of the area’s vegetation, which changes from the beech-pine forest so typical of the cool and humid Northern Pre-Alps to a sub-Mediterranean boxwood-juniper assemblage. Tese changes are governed by altitude, as the plateau gradually descends from a height of 1450 metres in the north to 850 metres in the south, before plunging past the Coufn cave entrance (at 590 m) to the bottom of the gorge and the village of Cho-ranche at 270 metres. More than half a century ago, the caver André Bourgin suggested that the “Coulmes area of the Vercors showed the characteristics of the whole massif in miniature” (1950, p. 16). Tis concentration of karst landscapes in an area of only 40 km2 is another of the riches of the Coulmes Plateau and further justifcation for protecting the site - especially in a country that has not, as yet, given ofcial protection to any of its mid-altitude forest karsts. vehement due to people feeling that local infrastructure needs had, for many years, been neglected. Many local people could not understand why listing the site was suddenly so important, as there was no immediate threat to the area. Tey felt that their ability to manage their own area was being called into question. Listing the site quickly became a local political issue that could only be understood in local terms and opposition to the project has been increased by the solidarity between local communities. For example, to avoid angering its neighbours, Choranche, which has everything to gain from the project, has rallied to the cause of Presles, which is hostile to anything other than a very limited protected area. Terefore, the project has lost the support it expected to receive from Choranche. Local politicians and competing institutions (Regional Nature Park, Association of local councils, etc) are also trying to make political capital from the protection project. And no one knows if the hostility of the area’s regional councillor is related to him being a quarry owner! DIFFICULTIES ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 43 CHRISTOPHE GAUCHON, ESTELLE PLOYON, JEAN-JACqUES DELANNOY, SéBASTIEN HACqUARD, ... CONCLUSION At the current time, the Choranche Caves protection dossier is still being fnalised and the full listing process is far from being fnished. Te dossier will be presented for examination by the “Départementale” Commission and the “Commission Supérieure des Sites”, and then it will probably go to ministerial arbitration before the listing can be approved by the Conseil d’Etat, France’s highest administrative body. To be successful, the protection project will require strong and sustained political support. Te importance of this political dimension came as a surprise to both the laboratory’s team of scientists and to the Department of the Environment, which had not expected such strong opposition. Nevertheless, the process has been extremely useful - it has shown the strength of public opinion and the awareness of the local population and their elected representatives of the need to consider the karst area in which they live as a precious resource that must be carefully managed. Even though these communities have been part of a Regional Nature Park for 35 years, despite Bourgin, André, 1950: Rivieres de la nuit.- Arthaud, 26 p. + 52 plates. Corbel, Jean, 1956: Le karst du Vercors.- Revue de Géog-raphie de Lyon, n° 3, p. 221-241. Décombaz, Oscar, 1898: Les grottes de la vallée de la Bourne et du Vercors.- Spelunca, Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie, t. III, n° 13, 54 p. Décombaz, Oscar, 1899: Explorations souterraines dans le Royans et le Vercors.- Spelunca, Mémoires de la Société de Spéléologie, n° 22, 52 p. Delannoy, Jean-Jacques, 1981: Le Vercors septentrional : le karst de surface et le karst souterrain.- Doctoral thesis, Grenoble, 537 p. Delannoy, Jean-Jacques, 1997: Recherches géomor-phologiques sur les massifs karstiques du Vercors et de la Transversale de Ronda (Andalousie).- Tese d’Etat, 678 p. the fact that there has been more than a century of exploration and tourism in the caves, although the tourist image of the Vercors is based on a preserved mountain environment and despite 20 years’ scientifc work to explain karst processes in layman’s terms, local politicians and a large section of the population are still unable to accept the need to give the karst active protection. Most local people now understand that the individual parts of the karst are merely components in a coherent and fragile whole. However, as soon as an attempt is made to explain what this means in terms of managing the karst, this “whole karst” concept is quickly forgotten if it is contrary to individual vested interests. France undoubtedly needs to develop a much more active karst protection policy. Forming a National Council for Underground Heritage, as is being considered by the Minister of Ecology, would raise awareness of this need and listing the Choranche Caves would be seen as a major step forward in the management of karst heritage resources. Gauchon, Christophe, 1994: Termalisme et Tourisme en moyenne montagne. Deux stations des Préalpes : Choranche et La Bauche.- Villes d’eaux, histoire du thermalisme, Actes du 117eme Congres National des Sociétés Savantes, éd. C.T.H.S., p. 381-393. Lismonde, Baudouin & Frachet, Jean-Michel, 1979:, Grottes et scialets du Vercors.- Inventaire spé-léologique, tome 2 : Vercors Nord, éd. Comité départemental de spéléologie de l’Isere, 345 p. Nicolas, J.-F., 1786: Mémoire sur les maladies épidémiques qui ont régné dans la province de Dauphiné depuis l’année 1780.- Imprimerie royale, Grenoble, 225 p. Peigne, Bernard & Charmont, François, 1962: Essai de statistiques spéléologiques : plateau de Presles, massif des Coulmes. REFERENCES 44 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 THE CONCEPTS OF HERITAGE AND HERITAGE RESOURCE APPLIED TO KARSTS: PROTECTING THE CHORANCHE CAVES ... KARSTIC GEOMORPHOLOGY KARST HYDROGEOLOGY Explored O Unroofed caves . underground networks * Caves cut by topography KARSTIC SPRINGS fr Karst cones o B ury-Pré Martin <& Dolines o Choranche <@ Polje o Fauries-Jallifier © Paleo-polje of Presles o East side of Plateau A*A*A Main cliffs o Presles-Pylône t Minor cliffs o Ruzand Faults * Source des donnšes : J.-J. Detannoy, 199? PROPOSALS FOR A PROTECTED AREA f~~^> Speleological networks and hydrogeologic basin of Choranche Caves o+< Coulmes Plateau, Presles Polje and Choranche caves Study area Communal boundaries fig. 4: Geomorphological map of the Coulmes Plateau, with the proposition for the delimitation of protected area. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 – 2006 45 CHRISTOPHE GAUCHON, ESTELLE PLOYON, JEAN-JACqUES DELANNOY, SéBASTIEN HACqUARD, ... LES NOTIONS DE PATRIMOINE ET DE RESSOURCE PATRIMONIALE APPLIqUéES AU KARST : LE CLASSEMENT DU SITE DE CHORANCHE (VERCORS, FRANCE) RéSUMé En aout 2005, le ministere français de l’Ecologie a lancé la procédure de classement des grottes de Choranche et du massif des Coulmes (Nord Vercors, Préalpes). Dans le cadre de la préparation d’un dossier « Patrimoine mondial » de l’Unesco portant sur 18 cavités concrétionnées, il convient en efet que les biens proposés a l’inscription soient bel et bien protégés par l’Etat porteur du dossier. Or, jusqu’a présent, le réseau karstique des grottes de Cho-ranche ne bénéfcie d’aucune protection réglementaire. Il fait l’objet d’une exploitation touristique organisée depuis 1967 et qui s’est avérée plutôt respectueuse de la caverne ; si aucune menace directe ne pese sur cet ensemble kars-tique, une commune du plateau a longtemps envisagé de capter la riviere souterraine de Gournier, ce qui aurait de graves conséquences sur la formation des tufs a l’aval de l’émergence. Le dossier de classement doit répondre a trois ob-jectifs : 1°, établir l’intéret scientifque, pittoresque, his-torique, artistique ou légendaire du site, car ce sont la les cinq criteres prévus par la loi de 1930 qui régit la protection des sites naturels. Dans le cas des grottes de Choranche, les intérets artistique et légendaire n’étant pas concernés, c’est sur les trois autres registres que porte le travail. 2°, défnir le périmetre de classement, ce qui est une tâche fort délicate car une partie du plateau est peuplée d’agriculteurs qui craignent pour leur activité. 3°, proposer un cahier de gestion de l’espace classé, en prenant en compte toutes les activités présentes, autant économiques que de loisirs. Il a donc fallu identifer les nombreuses ressources patrimoniales qui pouvaient justifer la mesure de protection. Au premier rang viennent les concrétions, et surtout les célebres fstuleuses de Coufn, qui valent au site de Choranche de fgurer dans le dossier Unesco. Tous les acteurs s’accordent sur la valeur de ces concrétions, mais les confits apparaissent des que sont évoquées les mesures de protection a prendre : car il ne suft pas de classer la parcelle sous laquelle se trouvent les fstuleuses, mais bien la totalité de la zone d’alimentation des concré-tions. Deuxieme ressource, l’eau : le nord-ouest du Ver-cors constitue un karst forestier de moyenne montagne, abondamment arrosé, mais les communes du plateau dis-posent de fort peu de ressources en eau, d’ou de grandes convoitises qui pesent sur cette ressource. Mais l’étude scientifque a fait émerger aussi d’autres ressources patrimoniales. Sur le plan scientifque, c’est le karst des Coulmes dans son ensemble qui mérite d’etre protégé : trois grandes rivieres souterraines coulent en efet sous le plateau des Coulmes et forment un ensemble d’émergences pénétrables, perchées 400 metres au-dessus du fond de la vallée de la Bourne. Les réseaux spéléologiques explorés (> 40 km) présentent toute la panoplie des formes endokarstiques, alors qu’en surface, c’est un spectaculaire karst a buttes qui est con-servé, avec de nombreuses paléo-cavités trépanées. Les cascades de Gournier présentent aussi un complexe de tuf, avec plusieurs dizaines de tonnes produites chaque année. Cette diversité des formes se traduit sur le plan pittoresque car le paysage formé par le cirque de Cho-ranche, dominé par de hautes falaises de calcaires ocres, est grandiose. Ces paysages sont marqués par toute une série de violents contrastes entre le dedans et le dehors, le vertical et l’horizontal, le minéral et le végétal… Enfn, l’intéret historique, plus discret, n’en est pas moins réel, avec a la fois des gisements archéologiques sous le porche de Coufn, des gisements paléontologiques importants dans plusieurs cavités (Coufn, Pré l’Etang) et les traces d’anciennes visites touristiques, surtout dans la grotte de Balme étrange (années 1830). L’intéret patrimonial du site est donc multiple et aisé a démontrer. Tout se complique lorsqu’il s’agit de con-vaincre les acteurs du bien fondé des mesures de protection a prendre. En efet, si les professionnels du tourisme soutiennent ce projet de classement, il n’en va pas de meme des agriculteurs, des chasseurs et d’une partie des propriétaires qui n’approuvent pas cette mesure. On voit par la que la gestion patrimoniale des ressources du karst reste un probleme délicat, surtout si un vrai travail péda-gogique n’a pas précédé le lancement de ces procédures. 46 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 COBISS: 1.01 EVALUATING THE HUMAN DISTURBANCE TO KARST ENVIRONMENTS IN SOUTHERN ITALY OCENJEVANJE SPREMEMB KRAŠKEGA OKOLJA ZARADI VPLIVA čLOVEKA V JUžNI ITALIJI Fabiana CALo1 & Mario PARISE2 Abstract UDC 502.6:551.44(450.75) Fabiana Calo & Mario Parise: Evaluating the Human Disturbance to Karst Environments in Southern Italy Karst environments are extremely vulnerable to degradation and pollution. Although the carrying capacity of these natural environments is low, a variety of human activities is implemented on karst settings generating impacts at the surface and subsurface. To evaluate the degree of disturbance to typical karst environments in the Mediterranean basin, two areas have been selected in Apulia (south-eastern Italy). Te human-induced effects are being assessed by applying a recently developed Karst Disturbance Index (KDI), based on a categorical framework encompassing physical, biological, and social aspects, and the evaluation of a number of indicators for each category. Scores are assigned to the indicators, to assess the severity and the extent of the human impacts on the karst environment. Knowledge of the study areas derives from a combined use of direct experience and feld surveys, and the critical evaluation of data available from research articles and local organization reports. Since this approach is an holistic and comprehensive method, diferent scientifc branches and law issues have been considered. Te results so far obtained for the study areas highlight the urgent need of a sustainable management of anthropogenic activities: for example, quarrying and stone clearing, both extensively widespread, are among the most dangerous practices for karst surface and subsurface landforms in Apulia. Tese activities are heavily changing the original karst landscape and causing the partial or total destruction of natural caves. Tis study represents a preliminary evaluation of the human disturbance to karst in Apulia, but has to be necessarily integrated by further applications in other areas of the region, aimed at a better understanding of the potentiality of the approach and its feasibility in diferent karst settings. keywords: karst disturbance, human impact, Karst Disturbance Index, Apulia, Italy. Izvleček UDK 502.6:551.44(450.75) Fabiana Calo & Mario Parise: Ocenjevanje sprememb kraškega okolja zaradi vpliva človeka v južni Italiji Kraško okolje je izredno občutljivo za uničevanje in onesnaževanje. čeprav je »nosilna sposobnost« tega naravnega okolja majhna, so na krasu najrazličnejše človeške dejavnosti, ki vplivajo na njegovo površje in podzemlje. Da bi ocenili stopnjo takih sprememb na značilnem kraškem ozemlju v Sredozemlju, je bilo izbranih dvoje področij v Apuliji (jugovzhodna Italija). Posledice, ki jih je povzročil človek, so bile ugotovljene s pomočjo pred kratkim razvitega »indeksa sprememb na krasu«, ki upošteva fzične, biološke in družbene vidike, obenem pa so bili za vsako skupino ovrednoteni številni pokazatelji. Ti so bili točkovani in tako sta bili ovrednoteni intenzivnost in obseg človekovega vpliva na kraško okolje. Poznavanje obravnavanega ozemlja temelji tako na neposrednem opazovanju kot na terenskih preučevanjih ter na kritičnem ovrednotenju podatkov iz strokovnih člankov in poročil lokalnih združenj. Ker gre za celostno in vsestransko metodo, so upoštevane različne znanstvene panoge in zakonodaja. Tako dobljeni izsledki za preučevana ozemlja kažejo na nujnost sonaravnega urejanja človeških dejavnosti, kot sta npr. lomljenje in čiščenje kamenja, oboje je na široko razširjeno in ki predstavljata najbolj nevarno dejavnost za kraške površinske in podzemeljske oblike v Apu-liji. Ti dejavnosti močno spreminjata prvotno kraško površje in povzročata delno ali celotno uničenje podzemeljskih jam. Ta študija predstavlja predhodno oceno sprememb na krasu v Apuliji in bi morala biti vključena v bodoče raziskave drugih ozemelj te regije, da bi lahko bolje razumeli prednosti te metode in njeno uporabnost za različna kraška okolja. ključne besede: spremembe na krasu, vpliv človeka, indeks sprememb na krasu, Apulija, Italija. 1 External collaborator CNR-IRPI, Bari Italy; e-mail: fabianacl@libero.it 2 CNR – IRPI, Sezione di Bari, Via Amendola 122, I - 70125 Bari, Italia; e-mail: m.parise@ba.irpi.cnr.it Received / Prejeto: 14.07.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2, 47–56, LJUBLJANA 2006 FABIANA CALo & MARIO PARISE INTRODUCTION: THE DISTURBANCE INDEX FOR KARST ENVIRONMENT Karst, with its surface and subsurface landforms such as closed depressions, sinkholes and caves, is among the most fragile natural environments of the world, and extremely susceptible to any change. Karst systems are non renewable resources but, nevertheless, they are increasingly being disturbed by a variety of human activities generating impacts both above and below ground (williams, 1993). Many anthropogenic actions cause great transformations and degradation of karst regions, including quarrying and mineral extraction, deforestation, agricultural practices, illegal waste dumps in natural cavities, tourism in caves. All these activities may result in negative efects on karst, such as pollution and depletion of water resources, changes of the natural morphology and hydrology, decline of animal species, etc. (Parise & Pascali, 2003). Complexity of karst, where several diferent categories interact in creating the overall ecosystem, requires to consider and analyse any component of karst, both individually and in the reciprocal relationships with the others, in order to safeguard and manage it in a sustainable way. At this aim, only an holistic, comprehensive approach, addressing physical, economic and social factors, can efectively assess the threats to karst areas (Van Beynen & Townsend, 2005). In order to reduce the karst system to elements easily studied for the evaluator, this article applies the method recently proposed by Van Beynen and Townsend (2005) to measure factors of karst disturbance (Fig. 1) based on a framework divided into fve broad categories, each encompassing more detailed attributes: Geomor phology that encompasses surface landforms, soil and subsurface karst; Atmosphere that deals with air quality; hydrology that fig. 2: Geological sketch of Apulia. Explanation: 1) recent clastic cover (Pliocene – Pleistocene); 2) bioclastic carbonate rocks (Paleogene) and calcarenites (miocene); 3) platform carbonate rocks (Cretaceous). Te two insets refer to the study areas. 48 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 EVALUATING THE HUMAN DISTURBANCE TO KARST ENVIRONMENTS IN SOUTHERN ITALY Published/ unpublished research articles INFORMATION ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT ASSESSMENT OF THE INDICATORS Identifcation of LD indicators SCORE ASSIGNMENT rating 0 rating 1 rating 2 rating 3 Karst Disturbance Index LD rating fig. 1: flow chart illustrating the methodology followed in this study. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 49 FABIANA CALo & MARIO PARISE includes surface practices infuencing water quality and quantity, and water quality of springs; Biota that concerns the vegetation disturbance and the subsurface biota in cave and in groundwater; and Cultural factors that include human historical artefacts, stewardship of karst region and building infrastructure. Te degree of disturbance of a certain attribute is indicated through a pre-established set of associated indicators, from those most destructive for surface karst as quarrying/mining (Gunn, 1993), and dumping waste in sinkholes and cavities, to the less apparent but equally dangerous use of pesticides and herbicides in agriculture, and so on. Each indicator, that can be appraised by the evaluator from historical data, feld observations, published and unpublished research articles and local government reports, is assigned a score from 0 to 3 based on severity and extent of the variable being considered: rating 0 means no karst disturbance, rating 1 indicates localized and not severe impact, rating 2 widespread and severe impact, whilst when a catastrophic impact is observed rating 3 is assigned. To determine the degree of disturbance of a particular region, the evaluator should know what an undisturbed karst system is, and assume it as the ideal reference system. Tis might be relatively simple for some indicators (water quality, extent of quarrying, etc.), but very difcult for others (loss of biodiversity, human-induced condensation/corrosion, etc.). Finding locations without human infuence may be extremely difcult, which forces the evaluator to use as baseline those areas with minimal human perturbation. Apulia region is the emerged south-eastern part of the Adriatic Carbonate Plate which is formed by Jurassic-Cretaceous limestones and dolostones covered by Tertiary and quaternary clastic carbonates, mostly calcaren-ites, and subordinate clays and sands. From the Lower Pleistocene, the region was interested by a general uplif-ing, until it reached the present confguration (Doglioni et al., 1994). Apulia is fragmented by high dip, Nw-SE striking, faults into uplifed and lowered blocks (Ric-chetti et al., 1988). Due to the widespread presence of carbonates, surface and subsurface landforms were extremely involved in karst processes that produced an extensive network of underground cavities and conduits. Te landscape is generally fat, characterized essentially by landforms of karst origin, whose best morphological expressions are identifable on the Murge Plateau of inland Apulia (Neboit, 1974; Sauro, 1991). Over large If an indicator cannot be applied to the study area, it has to be deleted from the evaluation, while if it is relevant in the area but no information is available, a “Lack of Data” (LD) has to be indicated. At the end of the evaluation, the number of LDs divided by the total number of used indicators gives a measure of the confdence of the index: LD rating < 0.1 would inspire high confdence in the determined index, while LD rating > 0.4 suggests that more study is required before application of the index can be carried out in that location. Once all feasible indicators have been scored, the evaluator calculates the Karst Disturbance Index. Scores are summed and the total is divided by the highest possible score to attain a value between 0 and 1, where the latter indicates an highly disturbed system and the lowest value a pristine system. Classes of Karst Disturbance Index, according to Van Beynen and Townsend (2005), are reported in Table 1. Score Degree of disturbance 0.8 - 1 Highly disturbed 0.6 - 0.79 Moderately disturbed 0.4 - 0.59 Disturbed 0.2 - 0.39 Little disturbance 0 - 0.19 Pristine tab. 1: Classifcation of disturbance (afer van Beynen & townsend, 2005). portions of the region, the natural landscape has been strongly modifed by man, also thanks to the smoothed morphologies that facilitated land use changes. Te Murge Plateau is a planation surface cut in the Cretaceous limestones during Paleogene and Neogene. From the highest elevations (678 m a.s.l. near Mt. Cac-cia), the plateau slowly degrades toward the Adriatic Sea to the east, through steps of marine terraces. Two main districts can be identifed: High Murge, which corresponds to the inner portion of the plateau, and Low Murge, closer to the Adriatic coastline. In this study, we apply the Karst Disturbance Index method to two areas, located respectively in the two aforementioned districts. MINERVINO MURGE AREA (HIGH MURGE) Selection of the area in the surroundings of the town of Minervino Murge for the present study was dictated, be- CASE STUDIES IN APULIA 50 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 EVALUATING THE HUMAN DISTURBANCE TO KARST ENVIRONMENTS IN SOUTHERN ITALY sides its very interesting karst features, by the fact that it is comprised within the boundaries of a recently established natural park (Alta murgia Natural Park), which total surface is around 70,000 ha. Te park was established with a National Law in 1998, afer many years of debate about the boundaries of the park, and many discussions about the permitted activities within its limits. Tis part of the Murge Plateau was originally devoted to pasture, and characterized by bare karst landscape with limestone rocks protruding from the ground surface. Te few areas where residual soils and terra rossa concentrated were slightly incised valleys, locally called lame, that constituted a sort of oasis where the farmers were able to perform agricultural practices. In the last decades, two main anthropogenic activities spread out in this area, which resulted in heavy changes in the natural landscapes: quarrying, and stone clearing (Fig. 3). quarrying is very fig. 3: quarrying and stone clearing are the main anthropogenic activities degrading the original karst landscape at minervino murge. Te photo shows an overall view of the southern slope of mount Scorzone. widespread due to the common use in Apulia of carbonate rocks as building and ornamental materials. Advance of quarrying is carried out without any concern for the natural caves, many of which have been damaged or destroyed by quarrying (Fig. 4). In addition, once the quarrying activity ceases, it is very common the use of the abandoned site for illegal dumping of solid and liquid wastes. Te considerations above led to assign high values to the indicators quarrying/mining (rating 3) and industrial and petroleum spills or dumping (rating 2). As regards the latter indicator, we considered as brownfelds (heavily polluted sites) any abandoned quarry where the presence of wastes was detected. Repeated surveys performed in the last years, integrated with interpretation of multi-year aerial photos allowed to quantitatively evaluate the advance of quarrying activities (Fig. 5), and the areas involved in land fig. 4: intense quarrying activities resulted at several sites in the minervino murge area in destruction of caves, as shown in this photo. use change. Tis was then integrated by feld surveys and speleological explorations, that further highlighted the destruction of a high number of caves in the area. Te data so collected clearly show that the area around Mi-nervino Murge is one of the most degraded in Apulia as regards disturbance of the karst environment, with loss of the original landscape and destruction of the natural caves. fig. 5: Areal increase of quarrying at minervino murge in the time span 1976-2005. Numbers on the x axis refer to the six 1:5,000 scale topographic maps that were used for air photo interpretation. Te quarrying activity coupled in the last 30 years with intensive stone clearing practices, even favoured by public subsidy from the European Community. Tese subsidies, addressed to changes in the land use for introducing new crops, resulted in the High Murge in transforming the original bare karst in a landscape which is unnatural for this area, with wide development of corn-felds. Most of the rocks resulting from clearing of the felds, and quarrying activity as well, are ofen dumped into swallow holes and caves (Fig. 6), or piled around karst depressions. Besides the negative efect on the karst landscape, these actions are extremely dangerous for cav- ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 51 FABIANA CALo & MARIO PARISE ers, due to instability of the dumped and/or piled rocks. Tus, the indicators inflling and dumping were considered, respectively, with rating 2 and 3. fig. 6: Stone clearing practices produced the formation of non natural cornfelds in the minervino murge area, and in piling of rock debris in the proximity of cave entrances (two persons for scale on the rock pile). Other rocks have been dumped as well into the cave, creating a serious danger for cavers, due to instability of the rocks, both outside and within the cave. At present, thousands of hectares of the original pastures have been transformed, and this has ofen resulted in later abandonment of the felds, due to intense erosion. In fact, stone clearing is carried out through the use of modern technologies and machinery, able to crush the carbonate rocks destroying the epikarst, and eliminating the soil. when it rains, even on gentle slopes surface run-of develops and intense erosion starts. Erosional processes may be so severe to determine onset of both linear and areal erosion on the slopes, through development of rills and gullies. Te indicator erosion has been therefore assigned a rating 2. Another consequence of the stone clearing practice is fooding in subsurface karst, as a further efect of the land use changes at the surface: similarly than the previous indicator, also fooding was considered to have a severe impact, scored as 2. Caves in the Minervino Murge area are characterized by vertical entrances, with some meters-deep shafs. Difculty in accessing the caves, which is limited only to expert cavers, resulted in high protection and safeguard of the caves and the deposits therein from removal and vandalism, and strongly limited other problems related to frequent visits by man. Tis had important consequences in the attribution of scores to some indicators. In practice, fve indicators belonging to diferent categories were listed as 0. Te category Biota was the most difcult to evaluate at the Minervino Murge area. Torough bibliographical research produced very little results in terms of published articles. Furthermore, nothing was found to allow a comparison at diferent times of the species richness and density of population, which is required to assign scores to the biota indicators. Tus, four out of the fve indicators of this category were considered as Lack of Data. vegetation disturbance was the only one that applied to the case study in the Biota category: a score 3 was assigned to this indicator, due to the long history of deforestation in the area, that brought to have today only very few remnants of wood cover (most of these is represented by re-forested areas). Another signifcant problem is the state of the present vegetation, since lack of maintenance of woods has resulted in a situation highly prone to wildfres, and with several non wealthy trees and plants. To cover even this issue of the vegetation, a new indicator (State of vegetation) was introduced, and again a score 3 was assigned. Many of the problems related to anthropogenic activities in the Minervino Murge area remained unsolved even afer establishment of the Alta Murgia Natural Park. Tis was mostly due to the lack of control by the Local Authorities, combined with a public indiference toward safeguard of the natural environment from large sectors of the population in the area. For these reasons, when evaluating the indicators belonging to the category Cultural factors, some negative scores have been assigned (2 for Regulatory protection, 3 for enforcement of regulations, again 2 for both Public education and building of roads). Te Karst Disturbance Index in the Minervino Murge area was determined using 26 indicators (Table 2), and resulted in a value of 0.49, which means “Disturbed” (Table 1). Four indicators were considered as LDs, that resulted in LD rating 0.15, corresponding to good con-fdence. Te difculty in accessing the natural karst caves in the area, due to vertical entrance of most of the caves, has been before mentioned. Tis difculty afects the scores of fve indicators (shown in italics in Table 2). Interestingly, if we do not take into account these fve 0 scores, the karst disturbance index for the Minervino Murge area rises to a value of 0.6 (see values in brackets in Table 2), falling in the upper range of the “Moderately disturbed” class. Accordingly, the LD rating changes from 0.15 to 0.19 because of the lower number of indicators used, but still indicates good confdence of the data. CASTELLANA-GROTTE AREA (LOw MURGE) Castellana-Grotte is worldwide famous due to the remarkable, more than 3 km long and more than 120 m deep, caves, which were explored for the frst time in 1938, and soon afer that became one of the most visited tourist caves in Europe. Discovery of the caves played an 52 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 EVALUATING THE HUMAN DISTURBANCE TO KARST ENVIRONMENTS IN SOUTHERN ITALY tab. 2: Karst disturbance index for the two study areas. Te numbers between brackets at minervino murge derive from deleting the fve indicators shown in italics in the table (see text for explanation). for details about each single indicator, the reader is invited to refer to the paper by van Beynen & townsend (2005). category indicator MINERVINO MURGE CASTELLANA GROTTE Geomorphology Quarrying/mining 3 2 Flooding (surface) 0 1 Stormwater drainage 2 2 Inflling 2 2 Dumping 3 2 Erosion 2 1 Compaction 1 2 Flooding (subsurface) 2 1 Decoration removal 1 2 Mineral/sediment removal 1 2 Floor sediment compaction 0 1 Atmosphere Desiccation 0 1 Condensation/corrosion 0 2 Hydrology Pesticides/herbicides 1 2 Industrial and petroleum spills 2 2 Algal blooms deleted deleted Changes in water table 1 1 Changes in cave drip waters 1 1 Biota Vegetation removal 3 2 State of vegetation 3 1 Species richness (cave) LD 1 Population density (cave) LD 1 Species richness (groundwater) LD LD Population density (groundwater) LD LD Cultural factors Destruction/removal of historical artifacts 0 2 Regulatory protection 2 2 Enforcement of regulations 3 2 Public education 2 1 Building of roads 2 2 Building over karst features 1 2 Construction within caves 0 2 TOTAL NUMBER OF USED INDICATORS 26 (21) 26 KDI 0.49 (0.6) 0.57 TOTAL NUMBER OF LDs 4 (4) 2 LD RATING 0.15 (0.19) 0.08 important role in the tourist development of this small adding Grotte, and thus becoming the present Castel-town of Low Murge, that modifed its name in 1950, by lana-Grotte. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 53 FABIANA CALo & MARIO PARISE Te show cave is only one of the many features of this part of Apulia, where both surface and subsurface karst landforms are widespread (Parise, 1999). Te main diferences with the frst territory dealt with in the present paper are that Castellana-Grotte and the surrounding territory develop at lower elevations (between 330 and 240 m a.s.l.), and the caves are not prevailingly vertical. As for the anthropogenic environment, the show caves, combined with the vicinity to the Adriatic coastline, a further reason of attraction for thousands of tourists during the summer season, produced in Low Murge a much greater presence of man’s activities and infrastructures. Several consequences on the natural karst environment had to be registered, including diversion of the natural runof, and of the water infltration rate in the rock mass as well, with greater possibility of occurrence of surface fooding (Fig. 7). fig. 7: Surface fooding at Castellana-Grotte, as a consequence of a severe rainstorm. without entering into the details of every single indicators, it has to be noted that in the Castellana-Grotte area no score 3 was assigned (Table 2), but, at the same time, none indicator had score 0, which means that some negative efects from human activities had to be registered within each indicator of all the categories. For example, the quarrying activity is not so intense as in High Murge; nevertheless, small quarries are present in the area, locally very close to signifcant subsurface karst features. In some cases, anthropogenic activities are still producing negative efects, irrespective of the existing laws and prohibitions (Fig. 8). Due to the easiness in accessing the caves, many of the indicators that in the frst study area had score 0, in this case presented problems, because of vandalism, removal of sediments and materials, and foor sediment compaction. At the same time, access of man into the fig. 8: Pozzo Cucu cave (fig. 8a) is one of the most remarkable caves in the Castellana-Grotte territory. Even though the cave was declared of interest for the European Community, due to its peculiar cave ecosystem, some anthropogenic works (fig. 8b) strongly altered the natural landscape above the cave in the last years. caves also had negative consequences for the biota environment. Besides these problems, the presence of the Castel-lana show caves adds further negative efects, as usual in show caves frequented by high number of tourists (Cigna, 1993; Pulido Bosch et al., 1997; Aley, 2004): changes in the cave environment, development of lampenfora as a consequence of the lighting system, construction within caves for trails and pathways, and so on. Te Karst Disturbance Index in the Castellana-Grotte area was therefore determined using 26 indicators, and resulted in a value of 0.57 (Table 2), corresponding to the upper range of the “Disturbed” class. Two indicators were considered as LDs, that resulted in LD rating < 0.1, corresponding to high confdence 54 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 EVALUATING THE HUMAN DISTURBANCE TO KARST ENVIRONMENTS IN SOUTHERN ITALY DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Determining the karst disturbance can be very difcult because of the inherent complexity of karst systems, and subjective because it requires interpretation of the karst environment by the expert, depending upon her/ his background. For example, a geologist might concentrate on geomorphology, neglecting the subsurface biota or the water quality. Since the method lists all the categories for which data should be collected, and uses pre-established indicators, the need for the evaluator to decide what is important to measure is strongly reduced. Furthermore, the utilized scoring system limited to four possibilities reduces much of the uncertainty associated to multi-level scoring systems, and prevents the evaluator from consistently choosing a middle value, forcing him to be more decisive. It has to be stressed that this approach is based upon some simplifying hypothesis: frst, the index is considered to be applicable for all karst regions, regardless of the difference in karst types; secondly, any change to the karst environment is evaluated as caused by human impact. Karst is, however, characterized by natural variability over space and time (williams, 1993); application of the index to heterogeneous areas, where two or more types of karst are present, should be performed with great care. In addition, it is sometimes difcult to discriminate between human-induced environmental changes and those caused by on-going natural processes. A fnal, but not less important, assumption of the method is the availability of data; actually, this varies from region to region, and depends on the thoroughness of studies and research undertaken for that specifc area. Trough the Lack of Data, the index includes this aspect and allows to provide a measure of the adequacy of the available information, and to highlight those karst regions where more research activity is needed. Notwithstanding these simplifcations, the Karst Disturbance Index can be adapted to any karst region, and this also contributes to improving the ability to compare the degree of disturbance to karst among diferent locations. It can serve as a standard tool for the evaluator (a karst scientist having the experience needed to interpret the available data) to provide a quantitative measure of the human impact, and it might help local administrations to contrast the increased human pressure and to address the sustainable management of karst environments. Te present study, through implementation of the Karst Disturbance Index to two areas in the Apulian karst of southern Italy, has shown the usefulness of the approach for a preliminary evaluation of the degree of disturbance in karst, as an help toward a better understanding of the impacts to the natural environment deriving from man’s activities. At the same time, the need of more detailed research and analysis in disturbed karst areas was well highlighted in both the areas, where a strong contrast occurs between the existing laws for protection and safeguard of the environment, and their real enforcement. Tis latter, in particular, has produced and, sadly to say, is still producing as well, heavy degradation, destruction of caves, and frequent loss of the karst landscape in several sectors of the Apulia region ACKNOwLEDGEMENTS we warmly thank Professor Ugo Sauro for his useful suggestions on the frst draf of the paper. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 55 FABIANA CALo & MARIO PARISE REFERENCES Aley, T., 2004: Tourist caves: algae and lampenfora.- In: Gunn, J. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of cave and karst science. Fitzroy Dearborn, 733-734. Cigna, A.A., 1993: Environmental management of tourist caves.- Environmental Geology, 21, 173-180. Doglioni, C., F. Mongelli & P. Pieri, 1994: Te Puglia uplif (SE Italy): an anomaly in the foreland of the Apenninic subduction due to buckling of a thick continental litosphere.- Tectonics, 13, 1309-1321. Gunn, J., 1993: Te geomorphological impacts of limestone quarrying.- Catena, suppl. 25, 187-197. Neboit, R., 1974: Plateau et collines de Lucanie orientale et des Pouilles. Etude morphologique.- Libr. Honore Champion, Paris. Parise, M., 1999: Morfologia carsica epigea nel territorio di Castellana-Grotte.- Itinerari Speleologici, 8, 53-68. Parise, M., 2003: Flood history in the karst environment of Castellana-Grotte (Apulia, southern Italy). -Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 3, 593-604. Parise, M. & V. Pascali, 2003: Surface and subsurface environmental degradation in the karst of Apulia (southern Italy).- Environmental Geology, 44, 247-256. Perrino, P. , G. Laghetti & M. Terzi, 2006: Modern concepts for the sustainable use of Plant Genetic Resources in the Mediterranean natural protected areas: the case study of the Alta Murgia Park (Italy).- Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 53, 695-710. Pulido Bosch, A., w. Martin Rosales, M. Lopez Chica-no, C.M. Rodriguez Navarro, & A.Vallejos, 1997: Human impact in a tourist karstic cave (Aracena, Spain).- Environmental Geology, 31 (3/4), 142-149. Ricchetti, G., N. Ciaranf, E. Luperto Sinni, F. Mongelli, & P. Pieri, 1988: Geodinamica ed evoluzione sedimen-taria e tettonica dell’Avampaese Apulo.- Mem. Soc. Geol. It., 41, 57-82. Sauro, U., 1991: A polygonal karst in Alte Murge (Puglia, southern Italy).- Zeitschrif für Geomorphologie, 35 (2), 207-223. Van Beynen, P. & K. Townsend, 2005: A disturbance index for karst environments.- Environmental Management, 36 (1), 101-116. williams, P.w., 1993 : Environmental change and human impact on karst terrains: an introduction.- Catena, suppl. 25, 1-19. 56 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 COBISS: 1.01 CHANGES IN THE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND HUMAN IMPACT IN THE KARST ENVIRONMENT OF THE VENETIAN PREALPS (ITALY) SPREMEMBE V IZKORIŠčANJU NARAVNIH VIROV IN VPLIV čLOVEKA NA KRAŠKO OKOLJE V BENEŠKIH PREDALPAH (ITALIJA) Ugo SAURO1 Abstract UDC 504.5:551.44(234.3) Ugo Sauro: Changes in the Use of Natural Resources and Human Impact in the Karst Environments of the Venetian Pre-alps In the Venetian Prealps the old model of resources use was for many aspects of sustainable type, in equilibrium with the natural dynamics. Episodes of strong impact occurred only in some particular areas and in specifc economical and political situations. Afer the Second world war dramatic changes in the resources management have taken place, induced by the urban and industrial development. Te traditional system of self-sustained economy has completely collapsed and has been replaced by an open economy more dependent on that of the large urban sprawl of the plain. Such development is clearly incompatible with the local environmental dynamics and it is difcult to be modifed, because it triggers self-sustaining processes. Te problem to individuate new more compatible directions for the development is, for a large part, a cultural problem and it may not be solved without a cultural revolution. Local people must be helped to understand the karst geo-ecosystem, the natural realm, the landscape, the local history, and the cultural heritage. Starting from such knowledge, local people have to develop a strong sense of belonging to their own geographical units and to become and to feel protagonists, responsible of their own development, capable to lead it. keywords: human impact, karst, and sustainable development, Venetian Prealps, Italy. Izvleček UDK 504.5:551.44(234.3) Ugo Sauro: Spremembe v izkoriščanju naravnih virov in vpliv človeka na kraško okolje v Beneških Predalpah Nekdanji način izkoriščanja virov v Beneških Predalpah je bil s številnih vidikov sonaraven, v ravnotežju z naravnimi spremembami. Močan vpliv na okolje je bil le občasen, le na nekaterih območjih in v posebnih gospodarskih in političnih razmerah. Po 2. svetovni vojni so se zaradi urbanizacije in industrializacije zgodile dramatične spremembe v upravljanju z viri. že od nekdaj utečeni način samozadostnega gospodarstva se je v celoti zrušil in zamenjalo ga je odprto gospodarstvo, bolj odvisno od hitrega širjenja mest v ravnini. Tak razvoj nikakor ni združljiv s krajevno dinamiko okolja in ga je težko spremeniti, saj sproži razvoj, ki poteka dalje sam od sebe. Težko je izdvojiti bolj sprejemljive smeri razvoja, saj gre pretežno za vprašanje kulture in teh težav ni mogoče rešiti brez »kulturne revolucije«. Krajevnemu prebivalstvu je treba pomagati, da bodo razumeli kraške geosisteme, naravne danosti, pokrajino, krajevno zgodovino, kulturno dediščino. Pričenši s takim znanjem naj bi krajevno prebivalstvo razvilo močan čut pripadnosti svoji geografski enoti in naj bi postalo in se čutilo odgovorno in sposobno za svoj lastni razvoj. ključne besede: vpliv človeka, kras, sonaravni razvoj, Beneške Predalpe, Italija. 1 Dipartimento di Geografa dell’Universita di Padova, Via del Santo 26, IT - 35123 Padova, Italia; e-mail: ugo.sauro@unipd.it Received / Prejeto: 06.09.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2, 57–63, LJUBLJANA 2006 UGO SAURO INTRODUCTION During the past centuries, nearly until the Second world war, in most of the pre-alpine environments man managed the resources trending to equilibrium with the natural dynamics. In other words, the local human communities were engaged to apply methods of sustainable development. Actually, there was not a real development in the sense of a change of the conditions of life but a kind of steady status. Te price to pay not to alter such equilibrium was the emigration of the surplus of the human population. Afer the Second world war dramatic changes in the natural resources use have taken place in the karst environments of the Venetian Prealps resulting from the open economy more dependent on that of the large difuse city of the plain (Sauro, 1977, 1987; 1993; 1994, 1999a; 1999b; 2003; Sauro et al., 1991, 1995). To develop a strategy for a future development, conserving, as possible, an ecological balance with the natural processes it is important to consider the diferent models of resources use applied in the past and the present day situation. THE OLD MODEL OF SUSTAINABLE TYPE A good example of application of a model of this type is represented by the small mountain settlements of Monti Lessini called “contrade”, with their surrounding countryside. A “contrada” was a settlement of patriarchal type, a kind of collective farm made up by a few houses and some rustic buildings: the “teda” type, a combination of a cowshed and a haylof, the pigsty, the hen-house and others collective structures such as the bread oven and the “baito” (a dairy farm managed by the inhabitants of several nearby “contrade”). Te inhabitants of each “contrada” owned the surrounding land consisting both of forested plots for wood and charcoal production, and of meadow plots for hay production and cattle or sheep grazing. Minor plots, ofen near to the houses, were used for agriculture and garden-culture to produce vegetables. Te meadow areas were utilized also for fruit trees growing. Te big problem of the absence or scarcity of surface water was solved collecting for the human use the rainfall and snow melting water of the roofs of the buildings, mostly made up by large stone slabs, by conveying it to underground tanks consisting in cylindrical recipes built up with stone walls and clay, called “possi”. Surface water was collected for the livestock, inside closed depressions in the meadows realized by the excavation and damming of dry valleys, waterproofed with clay, called “posse”. Each family owned a few cattle, exactly the number that could be sustained by the production of the pertinent meadow area. Te production of cheese and butter was managed corporately. During the year, there was a turnover in the management of the “baito”. Each member managed the “baito” during periods distributed in all the seasons working the milk produced by all, for a whole quantity corresponding to its own total evaluated yearly production. fig. 1: Sketch of the old system of storing the rainwater of the roofs of the buildings inside cisterns (called “possi”) build with stones and waterproofed with clayey soil sediments. (drawing of ferdinando Zanini in Avesani et al., 1986) Te butter and cheese were partly sold to get the money necessary to buy products like four, polenta and wine, and obviously others goods like clothes, etc. But usually the circulating money was really few. 58 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 CHANGES IN THE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND HUMAN IMPACT IN THE KARST ENVIRONMENTS OF THE VENETIAN Cases of strong impact are localized and linked with spe-cifc economical and political situations. A signifcant example is represented by the history of land use of the upper part of the Sette Comuni Plateau, a pasture area of common property of the local inhabitants. when the Sette Comuni Plateau became part of the Republic of Venice in 1404, the special low of “pensio-natico” was established to favour the mountain population as a compensation of the duty to control the state boundary. Te shepherds of the plateau were allowed to bring the focks in the plain in the period between October and March (six months of the year), also entering in the private felds. Tis privilege caused an increase of the focks’ consistency and a surcharge of the summer pastures. In the 18th Century the sheep number reached nearly 200.000 heads corresponding to a density in the Very rapid changes in the resources management have taken place afer the Second world war, according with the new economic styles promoted by the urban and industrial development. Te changes occurring in the last 50 years are relatively complex. Schematising the phenomenon it is possible to note: - a decrease of population in the mountain areas caused by a rural exodus, afecting especially the minor settlements; most of these and in particular those farthest from the towns and the villages have been abandoned or are utilized only seasonally as second houses or as structures for the agriculture; Integrative activities were the production and commerce of charcoal, wood, stone, lime, ice, fints for guns, diferent types of handicrafs, etc. In general, the economy was of a self-sufcient type and the impact of man on the environment was very limited: the inhabitants were careful not to alter the delicate equilibrium of the diferent environments such as the forest, the meadow and the pasture. fig. 2: Te stony desert created by the bombing of the Sette Comuni Plateau during the first world war. Te white stone fragments created by the explosions are scattered and appear as a snow cover. mountain area during the summer grazing period of about 500/km2. Te impact on the soil of the pasture was very strong and caused a desertifcation and a regression of the sheep rearing. Other episodes of strong impact in some areas are represented by the battles of the First world war. Te Pic-cole Dolomiti, Sette Comuni and Monte Grappa massifs became major battlegrounds of the Italian and Austrian armies. Tousands of kilometres of trenches, tunnels, roads and railways were hastily built. Tere were large artillery battles. At some times on Sette Comuni Plateau 1500 guns were fring more than 200 tonnes of projectiles each day. Ten of thousands of craters were created by the explosions. In some photographs taken afer bombing entire hills made up by a chalk type limestone looked like snowfelds because of the rocky fragments. - a strong decrease of the percent of population involved in farming activities; - an increase of the percent of population involved in other activities (services, industry, tourism, etc.); - a progressive abandonment of the land use of many plots and a corresponding expansion of the forested areas; - a simplifcation of the agricultural landscape, with disappearance of some types of land use (a kind of de-sharpening and homogenisation of the traditional landscape); - in some areas, the development of systems of large specialized farms, as poultry farms, pig farms, cattle SOME “OLD” CASES OF STRONG HUMAN IMPACT THE RECENT EVOLUTON ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 59 UGO SAURO farms; the poultry farms are located especially in the hilly and low mountain belt, the cattle farms in the middle mountain belt; - the urbanisation of some of the most valuable mountain areas, caused by the explosion of the mass tourism and in particular by the development of the “vacation homes”; beside the “second houses”, many others building and structures have developed as resort hotels, markets, sports grounds, ski complexes, roads, parking areas, etc; - the building of complexes of ski plants as ski lifs and chair lifs, and the creation of large ski-tracks obtained by the excavation and the movements of large masses of rocks; - the opening of large industrial quarries of limestone utilized as ornamental stone (Bondesan & Meneghel, 1991). fig. 3: large cowsheds of a modern cattle farm of the monti lessini near Bosco Chiesanuova. Te old contrada is hidden behind the large hangar-like buildings (centre of the photo). According with these changes, the traditional system of self-sustained economy has completely collapsed and has been replaced by a more open economy integrated with that of the large difuse city of the plain. Tis is evident, considering that most of the fodder to breed the cattle and the pigs, and of the poultry-feed are imported in the mountain area from outside. So a much larger bio- Te big challenge of the present time is to individuate a strategy capable to modify the local economic mechanisms, governing them towards better and, if possible, fig. 4: New vacation housing in Asiago (Sette Comuni Plateau). in the sign-board (enlarged in the foreground lef) the new complex is presented as “la vecchia Contrada”, that is the old type of settlement called contrada (in the reality it is very diferent). mass is involved in the environmental system. A large quantity of liquid wastes is dispersed and contributes to the modifcation of the soils and to the pollution of the surface and underground waters. During the summer and winter seasons in the urbanized areas of the mountains there is an impressive increase of the human population and a corresponding increase of the liquid and solid waste production. Te sewages are partly lost in the environment and drained into creeks and sinkholes. In the last 30 years the nitrate content of the base level waters has more than doubled. Most of the water circulating in the aqueducts is pumped from the base level springs or the alluvial aquifers of the valleys and of the plain. It is obvious that such development is incompatible with the local environmental dynamic. Also the economic system is less stable than the old one. For instance, the oscillations of the prices of some products like the milk, a product that may be imported from the less developed countries of East Europe, may cause the breakdown of the breeding and dairy farms; recently there has also been a period of collapse of the price of the chicken meat caused by the psychosis of the bird-fu. sustainable development models. Tis is not a simple task, also because some phenomena, like the urbanisation, the quarrying, etc have started positive feedback THE NECESSITY OF A CULTURAL REVOLUTION 60 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 CHANGES IN THE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND HUMAN IMPACT IN THE KARST ENVIRONMENTS OF THE VENETIAN TERRITORIAL CONTENTS INNOVATIVE AND CONTRADICTING ENERGIES evaluation models, envi-ronm. and social balances plans, projects, specific policies Institutions of participation and of orchestration S t r a t e g i c P a r t fig. 5: Sketch of some of the possible components to be considered inside a strategy plan of sustainable local development. Te sketch is derived with modifcations from magnaghi (2006). local agreements concerning integrate projects AWARE, SELF-SUSTAINING DEVELOPMENT s t r u c t u r a l P a r t mechanisms, which tend to amplify in time and to determine favourable economic and political backgrounds to their continuation. It must be said that something has changed in the culture of the people in the last years and that it is possible to recognize some signs of hope. So, many local and regional administrations have realized the importance of the big karst aquifers as strategic water resources. Te karst aquifer of the Sette Comuni Plateau only would be able to furnish something like 300 millions of cubic meters of relatively good water (except for the organic pollution) in a year, about 70 m3/for each inhabitant of the Veneto Region. while in the past nearly all the liquid wastes were dispersed in the environment, systems of ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 – 2006 61 UGO SAURO sewer have been built or are under construction to convey the waters to treatment plants or outside of the karst areas. In general, public opinion is now more sensible to the environmental problems. In any case, to engage battles against the sprawl of new buildings, the quarrying activities, the construction of new roads and factories could have the opposite efect of the one intended. It is like to become others Don qui-jote de la Mancha fghting against the windmills. On the contrary, it is certainly possible to apply to promote new trends and development styles like to favour the restoration of the old settlements and the re-qualifcation of the recent ones instead of the building of completely new structures; or to encourage forms of low impact tourism as the hiking, the cycling, the camping, the agri-tourism, promoting in the meantime the natural and cultural heritage of the areas and the quality of the local products, as the cheese, the agri-biological products, the crafsmanship, etc. If both the local inhabitants and the tourists will be able to get a good knowledge of the mountain area and will learn to establish a profound relation with this, it will become easier both to stimulate projects respectful of the local heritage and to prevent intervention negative for the environment. It is important to emphasize that the problem to individuate and to choose new more compatible directions for the development is for a large part a cultural problem and it may not be solved without a cultural revolution. Avesani, B., G. Chelidonio, U. Sauro & F. Zanini, 1986: “Terre rosse” in Lessinia: appunti sui signifcati geo-logici, preistorici e sugli usi tradizionali.- La Les-sinia – ieri oggi domani, 83-102, Verona. Bondesan, A. & M. Meneghel, 1990: Impact by limestone exploitation in western Lessini Mountains (NorthEastern Italy).- Proc. Int. Conf. on Anthropogenic and environmental changes in karst, Czechoslova-kia-Hungheria. Studia Carsologica 2, GGU, CSAV, 7-18. Castiglioni, B. (Ed.), 2005: Paesaggi carsici – Architet-tura di una relazione unica tra uomo e ambiente: Montello.- Museo di Storia Naturale e Archeologia di Montebelluna. Tis revolution needs investment of time by persons well trained in the environmental, historical and geographical research. It is necessary to start learning experiences in the feld involving both young and old people (like pensioners). Local people must be helped to understand the karst geo-ecosystem, the natural realm, the landscape, the local history, the cultural heritage (Castiglioni & Sauro, 2002; Magnaghi, 2006). Local people have to develop a strong sense of belonging to their own geographical units. Especially, local people have to become and to feel protagonists, responsible of their own development. Unfortunately the process of education needs time, while the changes resulting from the human activities are now impressively fast. Some experiences made in the last years are certainly positive (I remember here in particular the experience of the 3 KCl-Project, run inside the Program of the European Union - Culture 2000; see Cas-tiglioni, 2005), but they are not enough. Especially, in the more important areas for the environmental and cultural heritage (natural parks, karst areas, etc.) it is necessary to start with initiatives of permanent education. Tese have to be carried on especially in the feld, through the discovery of the local history, seen also as succession of episodes of human impact and interrelations between the natural and the human processes. In this strategic scenery it is fundamental to improve cooperation between diferent structures, as political authorities, research and educational organisations, local associations, etc. Castiglioni, B. & U. Sauro, 2002: Paesaggi e geosistemi carsici: proposte metodologiche per una didattica dell’ambiente.- In: Varotto M. & Zunica M. (a cura di) – Scritti in ricordo di Giovanna Brunetta. Dipar-timento di Geografa “G. Morandini”, Universita di Padova, 51-67. Gams I., J. Nicod & U. Sauro, 1993: Environmental changes and human impact in the Mediterranean Karst of France, Italy and Dinaric Region.- Catena suppl. 25, 59-98. Magnaghi, A., 2006: Gli atlanti del patrimonio e la “statu-to dei luoghi” per uno sviluppo locale autososteni-bile.- In Bertoncin, M. & Pase, A, (eds): Il territorio non e un asino - voci di attori deboli. Scienze Geo-grafche- Franco Angeli, Milano, 23-51. Mietto, P. & U. Sauro, 2000: Le Grotte del Veneto: pae- REFERENCES 62 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 CHANGES IN THE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND HUMAN IMPACT IN THE KARST ENVIRONMENTS OF THE VENETIAN saggi carsici e grotte del Veneto. Regione del Vene-to.- La Grafca Editrice (Vago di Lavagno, Verona), seconda edizione, 480 pp. Sauro, U., 1977: Aspects de la morphogenese anthropique dans le milieu karstique Alti Lessini.- Norois 95 (bis), 149-163. Sauro, U., 1987: Te impact of man in the karstic environments of the Venetian Prealps.- Karst and Man, University of Ljubljana. Study Group on Man’s impact in Karst. Proc. Int. Symposium on Human In-fuence on Karst, Postojna , Yugoslavia , 1987, 241-254. Sauro, U., 1993: Human impact on the karst of the Venetian Fore-Alps (Southern Alps, Northern Italy).-Environmental Geology 21/3, 115-121. Sauro, U. [Scientifc coordinator], 1994: Map of the human impact in the karst environment of the central-western Lessini Mountains.- In L. Sorbini, Ed. 1994: Geologia, idrogeologia e qualita dei principali acquiferi veronesi.” Mem. Museo St. Nat. Verona, s.2/4. Sauro, U., 1999a: Analisi e modellizzazione dei geo-eco-sistemi carsici: verso un approccio globale per la comprensione della dinamica e della vulnerabilita degli acquiferi carsici.- quaderni di Geologia Ap-plicata, suppl. 2, 99, I/235-2 Sauro, U., 1999b: Towards a preliminary model of a Karst Geo-Ecosystem: the example of the Venetian Fore-Alps. Karst 99, Etudes de géographie physique, sup-pl. n°. 28, CAGEP, Université de Provence, 165-170. Sauro, U., 2003: Asiago Plateau, Italy.- In J. Gunn (ed.) “Encyclopedia of Caves and Karst Science”, 116-119. Fritzroy Dearborn, New York. Sauro, U., A. Bondesan & M. Meneghel (eds.), 1991: Proceedings of the International Conference on Environmental Changes in Karst Areas.- quaderni del Dipartimento di Geografa 13, Universita di Pa-dova. Sauro, U. & M. Lanzingher, 1995: Te study of the mor-phokarstic unit of Sette Comuni Plateau (Venetian Fore-Alps): State-of-the-art.- Studi Tridentini di Scienze Naturali - Acta Geologica, v. 70. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 63 COBISS: 1.01 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF BRACKISH KARST SPRING PANTAN (CROATIA) TRAJNOSTNO UPRAVLJANJE BRAKIčNEGA KRAŠKEGA IZVIRA PANTAN (HRVAŠKA) Ivana FISTANIć1 Abstract UDC 556.3(497.5 Pantan) Ivana Fistanić: Sustainable management of brackish Karst spring Pantan (Croatia) Pantan area is situated in the central part of the eastern Adriatic coast near town Trogir. It presents inseparable unit consisting of Pantan spring, river course with surrounding swamp area and sea coast. Particularity of the area is swamp which is unique example in this part of the eastern Adriatic coast mostly characterized by dry karst areas. Main characteristic of the spring is periodical salinity during the year with the highest salinity during summer months. Spring presents potential drinking water source under consumption that salinization problem is solved. Unfortunately due to bed watershed management water quality of Pantan spring and environment of Pantan area is highly devastated. Today Pantan area presents an example of not preserving balance between natural resources on karst and human interventions in watershed area. All future measures should be directed on rehabilitation and further protection of this valuable karst environment. Paper gives overview of the state of the spring as well as proposed measures of sustainable management directed to the preservation of this distinct karst ecosystem. As the basis for analyzing the inter-related factors that impact on the environment, DPSIR framework is used. Tis framework provide rational and clear guideline for analyzing the infuence of pressures derived from human activities on natural environment, and the way they are changing state of the environment. Results of the analyses showed that DPSIR framework is adequate tool to shape and implement sustainable development strategy for the Pantan area. It is evident that in this process is extremely important to take into the consideration vulnerability of the karst. keywords: brackish karst spring, integrated management, DP-SIR concept, Pantan, Croatia. Izvleček UDK 556.3(497.5 Pantan) Ivana Fistanić: Trajnostno upravljanje brakičnega kraškega izvira Pantan (Hrvaška) Območje izvira Pantan se nahaja v centralnem delu vzhodne jadranske obale v bližini mesta Trogir. Gre za neločljevo celoto, sestavljeno iz izvira Pantan, površinskega vodotoka z okoliškim močvirjem in obalnega pasu. Posebnost območja je močvirje, edino v tem delu Jadrana, kjer sicer prevladuje suho kraško površje. Izvir kaže periodično slanost, ki je največja v poletnih meseciih. Z rešitvijo problema slanosti, bi izvir predstavljal potencialni vir pitne vode. žal je, zaradi slabega upravljanja vodozbirnega območja, kvaliteta vode slaba. Območje Pantana je tipičen primer podrtega ravnovesja med naravnimi viri in človekovimi posegi v zaledju izvira. Zato morajo biti vsi bodoči ukrepi usmerjeni v rehabilitacijo in zaščito tega pomembnega kraškega območja. članek predstavlja pregled trenutnega stanja izvira in predlagane ukrepe trajnostnega upravljanja s tem pomembnim kraškim ekosistemom. Za analizo faktorjev, ki vplivajo na okolje smo uporabili model DPSIR. Model omogoča pregledno analizo vpliva obremenitev, ki so posledica človekovih posegov v naravno okolje. Rezultati so pokazali, da je model DPSIR primerno orodje pri načrtovanju trajnostne razvojne strategije območja izvira Pantan. Nedvomno bo pri tem potrebno upoštevati veliko ranljivost krasa. ključne besede: brakični kraški izviri, celostno upravljanje, model DPSIR, Pantan, Hrvaška. 1Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Matice hrvatske 15, 21000 Split, Croatia, e-mail: Ivana.Fistanic@gradst.hr Received / Prejeto: 20.10.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2, 65–72, LJUBLJANA 2006 IVANA FISTANIć INTRODUCTION Pantan area is situated in the southwest of Kastela bay, between towns Split and Trogir (Fig. 1). It is the area of approximately 40 ha and presents inseparable unit consisting of Pantan spring, river course with surrounding swamp area and sea coast. Te area presents green oasis in the mostly karstic area. Spring is a permanent and abundant coastal spring of ascending type. Te opening of the spring is located at the elevation of 3 meters above sea level in the contact zone between the limestone and fysch layers while the catchments area is formed of highly permeable limestone rocks (Fritz et al., 1993). Spring discharge oscillates during the year. In summer period minimal discharge is 0,3 m3/s, while in the winter period maximum discharge is 12 m3/s. Flysch zone presents incomplete barrier towards the sea resulting with sea water intrusion into the spring aquifer (Bagarić 1973; Bonacci 1995). Terefore, the main characteristic of the spring is periodical salinity during the year with the highest salinity in summer months. Spring makes small lake Pantan with surface area from 35 to 60 m2 and depth of 13 meters. River Rika fows out of the lake to the sea and into the numeral brackish lateral channels that irrigate surrounding swamp area. Vegetation of the area is favorable for permanent or occasional residence of numeral bird species. Some of these species are unique and threatened of dieing out. Due to the variable ecological factors, temperature and salinity, life conditions in this biotope are very specifc making favorable conditions for spawn and growth of particular fsh and crab species. Terefore this small area presents unique ecological oasis and urgent protection from harmful human interventions is necessary. fig.1: Pantan area location From the ecological standpoint and according to the Environmental Protection Law, Pantan area presents unique swamp area in wide region and it is evaluated as a highly valuable environment. It should be mentioned that this area except natural values, has signifcant cul- tural-historical value. Mill situated in Pantan area according to its oldness and architecture presents valuable historical heritage (Figure 2). Furthermore, recent archeological investigations resulted with assumptions that archaeological remains in Pantan area date from the ancient time. If these excavations really date from the ancient time Pantan mill is unique example of mills built on ancient foundations. Unfortunately, this miniature cultural and nature reservation is almost unknown until today which is a great loss for this area. water from Pantan spring has never been used for water supply mainly because of the salinisation problem. Chloride concentration signifcantly changes during the year, and extreme values variate from 20 mg/l in January, and 10117 mg/l in August. In summer period water can be used only for the purposes of fsh-farm since it is not sensitive to the chloride oscillations. Problem of sea water intrusion is widely spread in coastal karst areas of the world. Tis phenomena has been analyzed by many researchers for large number of locations (Arfb et al., 2000; Bonacci and Roje-Bonacci 1997; Breznik 1973; Breznik 1998; COST Action 621). Pantan spring is not an exception and extensive water investigations have been taken for the purpose of better understanding of complex hydrogeological conditions and fnding solution for spring desalinization for the purpose of exploiting fresh water for the water supply (Bonacci et al., 1995; Komatina 1990; Mijatović 1984). Tough these investigations gave some assumptions about spring functioning fnal solution of spring desalinization has never been achieved. Meanwhile, due to bed watershed management water quality of Pantan spring is permanently endangered. In present time, as the result of bad watershed management, salinity of the water is not the main problem comparing to the other water quality parameters. Unfortunately through the past period many actions have been made that have contributed to the devastation of the whole Pantan area. Close to the spring main road is located. Area on the eastern border line of Pantan area is used as the waste disposal of town Trogir and it signif-cantly contribute to the degradation of this area. On the west side new settlements are growing without any plans. In watershed area unplanned agriculture is developing. Pantan mill which have been well known in the history is due to careless mostly devastated. Fish farm is built without plan and in many ways contribute to the devastation of the area. Concrete bankment has been built making contrast to the surrounding area. water loaded with fsh food and dung is discharging from fsh farm. Trough the history many owners of the mill have changed and many changes on the historical mill building have been 66 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF BRACKISH KARST SPRING PANTAN (CROATIA) fig.2: Pantan swamp area and Pantan mill made. All above mentioned actions are presenting an example of bad watershed management as well as bad care of reservation area and cultural heritage. All activities in watershed area of Pantan spring and Pantan reservation itself led to the signifcant devastation of this valuable natural and cultural-historical reservation. It can be concluded that Pantan karst spring presents an example of not preserving balance between natural resources on karst and human interventions. Today water quality of Pantan spring is endangered which is mostly the result of the unplanned activities in watershed area and Pantan area. Human pressure and bad spatial planning made serious consequences on Pantan water quality. It is not possible to use water for the water supply but it is still possible to use it for the other purposes as for irrigation and fsh-farm. Despite bad resource management even today Pantan has unique beauty and presents tourist potential due to its particular natural and historical values. Terefore all further activities taken in this area should not have the advantage over the environment protection and should be directed on protection of karstic watershed and Pantan area. Above all integral protection that will stop further unsuitable use of this area is necessary. In integral concept problem of karst vulnerability should be involved into the watershed management. Tis paper presents state of the Pantan spring, overview of recent resource management, as well as further necessary measures directed to the preservation and sustainability of this distinct karst ecosystem. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 67 IVANA FISTANIć METHODS AND APPROACHES Prerequisite for accomplishing sustainable development of natural resources is integral approach - integrated resources management. One of the defnitions of the integrated water resources management says that it is the process that promotes the co-ordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in and equitable manner without comprising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. Integral concept is particularly desirable and necessary in karst areas which are very sensitive and open to the pollution generated in the watershed area and therefore very vulnerable. Integrated environmental assessment is also defned as the interdisciplinary process of identifcation, analysis and appraisal of all relevant natural and human processes and their interactions, which determine both the current and future state of environmental quality, and resources, on appropriate spatial and temporal scales, thus facilitating the framing and implementation of policies and strategies (Stanners and Bordeau 1995). For the implementation of integrated assessment system approach is necessary. A system approach recognizes the individual components as well as the linkages between them, meaning that a disturbance at one point in the system will be translated to other parts of the system. System approach is clearly visible through DPSIR framework. DPSIR framework is system approach that recognizes the linkages between the environment and the socioeconomic domains. Implementation of the DPSIR framework (Driving forces, Pressures, States, Impacts, Responses) is the basis for the efcient and transparent water resources management. Figure 3 presents general technical description of the framework which can be implemented not only on water resources but on any natural environment. It is causal framework for describing the interactions between society and the environment. It was made for the purpose of accomplishing the mission of the European Environmental Agency (EEA) which is ‘to support sustainable development and to help achieve signifcant and measurable improvement in Europe’s environment through the provision of timely, targeted, relevant and reliable information to policy-making agents and the public’. Indicators on environmental relevant issues provide information on the DPSIR elements. In its original form DPSIR framework is a general framework for organizing information about the state of the environment. It is a logical and a good way to structure data and information about the environment and information on diferent environmental problems. DPSIR framework is the basis for state-of-environment reports, consisting of sets of indicators each representing some parts of links within the framework. Furthermore, DPSIR has been adopted as a framework and policy tool to identify management options for a range of environmental options. Te DPSIR framework assumes cause-efect relationships between interacting components of the social, economic and environmental system. Framework makes visible the links between the causes of environmental problems, their efects on the state of the environment and relevant societal responses. Te DPSIR framework aims at focusing environmental reporting on a set of indicators that represent the diferent compartments of DPSIR. Tis reminds on holistic approach including an integrated assessment which is desirable in task of watershed management. DPSIR concept helps in understanding system behavior. It establishes the functional and structural relationships among major elements of the system to understand how the system operates. Tis framework provides rational and clear guideline for modeling of pressures derived from human activities on natural environment, and the way they are changing state of the environment. It can be concluded that DPSIR approach is a useful tool to shape a sustainable development strategy. fig. 3: Te dPSiR model Figure 3 shows interconnection between driving forces of environmental changes (general: population, economy, land use, societal development; Sector specifc: industry, agriculture, fsheries, transport, tourism, recreation), Pressures on the environment (soil emissions, water emissions, air emissions, waste, use of resources), State of the environment (water, soil, air), impacts on population, economy, ecosystem (human health problems and other functions of the environment), Response of the society (environmental policies and measures). Human activities (Driving forces) generate the ‘Pressures’ on the environment, which in turn infuence and modify 68 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF BRACKISH KARST SPRING PANTAN (CROATIA) ‘environmental conditions’ (State) and therefore provoke and cause environmental problems – ‘Impacts’ on human beings, natural resources and materials. Tese problems stimulate and ask for ‘Responses’ and close the loop back to human activities and also led to policy actions. Te Responses may be technical measures, afecting directly pressures or state, or policy instruments directed to the driving forces. DPSIR framework ofers a basis for analyzing the inter-related factors that impact on the environment. Te aim of such an approach is (a) to be able to provide information on all of the diferent elements in a DPSIR chain, (b) to demonstrate their interconnectedness, (c) to estimate the efectiveness of Responses. Tere have been certain changes in philosophy of analysis specifc element of the concept. In past, priority has largely been given to the Pressures, State and Impact. In future, increasing attention will be given to the Forces and Responses. Tis practically means making more active measures and less passive measures. Insight of the Pantan spring and state of the environment of the Pantan area is presented by the application of the DPSIR framework. Using this framework cause-effect analysis for the Pantan area is made. Figure 4 shows state of the environment of the Pantan area through the framework. In case of Pantan spring signifcant number of driving forces is present in the watershed area and Pantan area showing that recent watershed management was very poor and inefcient. Settlements in watershed area are mostly built without any plans. Building was not controlled through the laws which are usually applied for the springs planned for water supply. For these springs sanitary protection zones are proposed which was not the case with Pantan spring. Tese settlements do not have sewage system but they dispose water directly to the ground. Trough the karst channels in the underground this pollution is coming directly to the spring. Main road in the county is placed very close to the spring which is inadmissible from the point of water quality protection. Furthermore, large waste area of the town Trogir is in close vicinity. All driving forces which are above mentioned have the infuence/pressure on quality of underground waters fowing to the spring as well as on the environment of the reservation area. Tis pressure infu-ence and modify water quality of the spring as well as the water quality in the whole swamp area. As the result of above mentioned processes and interrelations is the Successful implementation of the European water Framework Directive which aims at improving water quality using an integrated management approach requires appropriate mathematical models and other tools to manage diferent phases of the planning procedure and to support decision making in various steps of the implementation process. Furthermore integration of these models is needed. DPSIR framework provides a basis to assure that proper tools will be available and selected for defned purposes. It is important to stress out that DPSIR concept helps in achieving transparent representation and understanding of the role of diferent models in the process of decision making. Tis practically means that in the place of each arrow (Figure 3) model can be placed showing the interaction between particular models. In this paper DPSIR approach is used for presentation and evaluation of the seriousness of environment degradation as well as a useful tool to shape a sustainable development strategy for Pantan area. spring water quality that does not comply standards of drinking water. water usage for the fsh farm is also endangered though these standards are less strict comparing to drinking water. water quality in swamp area is also changed causing biotope changes. As the result of these changes dieing out of certain unique species is happening. In integral management measures for achieving sustainable management need to be implemented. Tese measures are represented in DPSIR concept as responses which make infuence on all elements of the concept (environmental, economic and social aspects). Tere is signifcant number of measures/responses that could be implemented for the purpose of improving present state and caused impacts. Above all better watershed management should be organized. Present state shows that in the past period watershed management did not have elements of integrated watershed management. Better strategy for reservation area exploitation and protection is necessary. In the past period there was no clear strategy for the usage of this area. First step in this direction is announcing this area as the protected area. Tese strategies for the watershed area and reservation area would help in preventing growing of driving forces. Tese measures present active protection measures that could stop pollution in its early start. Partly active measure is the prevention of watershed pollution through water purifcation directly on the source of pollution and before water dis- ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 69 IVANA FISTANIć Driving forces Pressures States Impact • Urbanization • Waste water • Polluted spring water • Inability of using • Waste disposals • Pollution emission • Changes of biotope water for water • Roads —=> from roads —=> • Decrease of swamp —=> supply and other • Agricultural • Discharge of nutrients area purposes production from agricultural soils • Brackish spring water • Loss of biodiversity in • Interventions in the • Devastation of swamp area reservation area natural conditions in • Natural conditions: reservation area sea-karst interaction • Sea water intrusion Responses • Watershed protection • Treatment of discharge • Treatment of spring water • Planning water using • Sustainable management waters • Water desalinization according to the strategy • Difuse pollution control • Conservation and restoration present water quality • Better plans for reservation • Measure for area water usage intrusion preservation • Systen of issuing permissions • Analyses of sea water intrusion precesses fig.4: Te dPSiR model of the Pantan area charging into the underground. Responses that eliminate and reduce pressures would be very efcient measure. Firstly this means building of sewage systems as well as building waste water treatment plants. Difuse pollution control could signifcantly contribute to the water quality improvement. Since present state is already degraded measures that will infuence and restore the present state would be necessary. Tese measures include treatment of spring water as well as measures with the purpose of the restoration of natural conditions in the swamp area. Last mentioned measure presents totally passive measure that compensates and mitigates the impacts. Tese are the measures directed to the consequences of the bad watershed management. Tere is the other set of indicators included in DP-SIR scheme originated not from the human activities but from natural conditions. Tey present the problem of sea water intrusion. In this problem driving forces present closeness to the sea and natural conditions of karst that make underground aquifer open to the sea intrusion. Sea water intrusion process presents the pressure. Resulting unwanted impact is the inability of using brackish water for water supply. Responses to the sea impact can be made on all levels of presented DPSIR scheme. First step is directed to analyses and better understanding of driving forces, in this case sea infuence on fresh aquifer, and it presents analysis of sea water intrusion process. Tis presumes understanding of hydrogeological conditions in the underground that make sea intrusion process pos- sible. Knowing these conditions is the prerequisite for making adequate technical interventions for the purpose of preventing sea water intrusion. Tese interventions result with changing of the spring water state meaning that spring water will not be brackish any more. Possible solution is also the one that infuence the impact which means changes of quality of brackish spring water. Tis means desalinization process but it remains a relatively expensive measure. Presentation of Pantan area through DPSIR concept shows very clear picture of the present state and clear picture of possible measures that can be implemented as well as their infuence on certain elements of the concept. Clear presentation of all elements and their interactions is prerequisite for efcient sustainable management of Pantan area. 70 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF BRACKISH KARST SPRING PANTAN (CROATIA) DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Pantan swamp area gives signifcant biological and ecological value to the surrounding mostly karstic dry area and contributes to the variability of that uniform area. It presents unique natural reservation, but unfortunately it also presents the area where preservation of brittle balance between natural resources in karst and human interventions has not been achieved. Pantan is the example of degradation of natural environment, as the result of the unsatisfactory interventions in close and wide area. Such treatment is not adequate for this area. Tis swamp area with signifcant natural and environmental values, in combination with valuable cultural-historical heritage should be evaluated as valuable location together with town Trogir, which is announced as UNESCO town. In this paper DPSIR framework is used for organizing information about the state of the environment as well as for organizing management system following the integration principle (environmental, economic and social aspects). DPSIR approach is a useful tool to shape a sustainable development strategy and it is ofcially accepted as the basis for further adoption and development for the wFD purposes, since many of the tasks required by the Directive refer directly to the elements of the DP-SIR framework. DPSIR methodology is applied to this area for the assessment of environmental conditions, elaboration of management plans and design of specifc restoration/conservation actions to be carried out. Presentation of DPSIR concept for Pantan shows that in previous period there were no elements of system approach in the management of environmental resources in this area. Sustainable development does not exist and it is visible that human pressure on natural resources has been made without hesitation about consequences. DPSIR concept clearly shows that existing state can be enhanced through the active measures for prevention of further devastation of the area as well as passive measures for the rehabilitation of the area. Regarding problem of sea water intrusion scientifc research projects are necessary. It is important to notice that in the past period natural and cultural-historical potentials have never been suf-fciently estimated which can explain lack of watershed management. It is the question if this zone will be named as protected area or it will be simply ignored and subjected to all other needs such as unplanned growth of settlements in watershed area, as development of fsh farm, building coastal swimming zone and other. Fortunately in recent time certain improvements in treatment of this area have been made. According to the Nature protection law in year 2000 Pantan area is named as special reservation since it has particular importance for preserving biological diversities. Idea of using this area for the education-touristic purposes is growing. New owner of the mill is planning to build small hydro-electric power plant and solar system, renovate mill and through all this give new values to natural and cultural heritage of the area. Prerequisite for above mentioned plans is adequate regional planning of resource exploitation in the whole watershed area of Pantan spring. Analysis of DPSIR concept clearly shows that diferent Responses infuence the elements of the concept. Trough response variables it is believed to improve the situation with regard to sus-tainability. Basis for the further development of this area should be protection of natural characteristics which has its foothold in legislation but it is usually understated and no implemented. Tis includes adequately regional planning of watershed area and resources exploitation. Trough the defnition of the regional plans it is necessary to implement regulations that will defne preservation of natural conditions and provide their protection. Furthermore, integral project of the rehabilitation of whole area is needed. It is important not to make any actions that could result with changes in water regime since that would result with changes in vegetations and therefore changes in biotope. Since this location is very small it is necessary to estimate capacity for tourist reception visitors to prevent devastation of the area. In order to preserve present state and make certain improvements it is necessary to encourage establishment of natural conditions. In swamp area many activities as devastation of canes, catch of shells and fsh should be stopped. In the watershed area, which is very vulnerable karst area, unplanned construction, intensive agriculture and waste dumps should be stopped. All these responses/measures should be controlled through DPSIR framework which is adequate tool to shape and implement sustainable development strategy for the Pantan area. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 71 IVANA FISTANIć REFERENCES Arfb B., de Marsily G., Ganoulis J., 2000: Pollution by seawater intrusion into a karst system: new research in the case of the Almyros source (Heraklio, Crete, Greece). Acta Carsologica, 29 (1.1), 15-31. Bagarić, I., 1973: Prilog rješavanju problema iskorištenja zaslanjenih voda priobalnog i kraškog vrela Pantan kod Trogira.- Saopštenja Zavoda za hidrotehniku Građevinskog fakulteta u Sarajevu. 13, 1-18. Bonacci, O., 1995: Brackish karst spring Pantan.- Acta Carsologica. XXIV, 97-107. Bonacci, O., Fritz, F., Denić-Jukić, V. , 1995: Hydrogeol-ogy of Slanac Spring.- Hydrogeology Journal. 3(3), 31-40. Bonacci O., Roje-Bonacci T., 1997: Sea water intrusion in coastal karst springs: example of the Blaž Spring, Journal-des Sciences Hydrologiques, 42(1), 89-100. Breznik, M., 1973: Nastanak zaslanjenih kraških izvora in njihova sanacija. Geologija, Te origin of brackish karstic springs and their development.- Geologija -Razprave in poročila, Ljubljana. 16. knjiga, 83-186. Breznik, M., 1998: Storage Reservoirs and Deep wells in Karst Regions. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Brook-feld COST Action 621. Ground water management of coastal karstic aquifers.- Final report. EUR 21366. Fritz, F., Pavičić, A., Renić, A., 1993: Hydrogeology of the Hinterland of Šibenik and Trogir.- Geologia Cro-atica. 46(2), 291-306. Komatina, M., 1990: Problemi zahvatanja podzemnih voda u karstu.- Voda i sanitarna tehnika. XX(1) Mijatović, B., 1984: Hydrology of the Dinaric Karst. International Association of Hydrogeologist. Volume 4. 115-142. Stanners, D. and Bordeau, P (eds.), 1995: Europe’s Environment: Te Dobris Assessment. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen. 72 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 COBISS: 1.01 KARST wATER MANAGEMENT IN SLOVENIA IN THE FRAME OF VULNERABILITY MAPPING UPRAVLJANJE S KRAŠKIMI VODAMI V SLOVENIJI V OKVIRU KARTIRANJA OBčUTLJIVOSTI Nataša RAVBAR1, Gregor KOVAčIč2 Abstract UDC 556.3:65.012(497.4) 556.3:504.06(497.4) Nataša Ravbar & Gregor Kovačič: Karst water management in Slovenia in the frame of vulnerability mapping Slovene karst sources are of great national importance for drinking water supply. Since karst aquifer systems are very susceptible to contamination, these sources require appropriate and careful managing. Unfortunately, in the acts of Slovene legislation, the special characteristics of water fow within karst regions are not very seriously taken into consideration in determining the criteria for karst water sources protection. In contrast, in some other countries, the concept of groundwater vulnerability mapping has been successfully used for protection zoning and land use planning in karst. Regarding the diferences between particular karst aquifer systems, data availability and economic resources, diferent methods of karst water vulnerability assessment and mapping have already been developed. Already these methods have been many times tested and implemented in different test sites worldwide. However, experience in application using diferent methodologies for vulnerability mapping of karst aquifers is very modest in Slovenia. Te present paper deals with potential methodological problems that might arise while applying the most commonly used methods for karst water vulnerability assessment to Slovene karst regions. key words: karst water management, karst sources protection, drinking water, vulnerability assessment and mapping, Slovenia. Izvleček UDK 556.3:65.012(497.4) 556.3:504.06(497.4) Nataša Ravbar & Gregor Kovačič: Upravljanje s kraškimi vodami v Sloveniji v okviru kartiranja občutljivosti Kraški izviri so v Sloveniji izjemnega pomena za vodooskrbo. Ker so kraški vodonosniki zelo občutljivi na onesnaženje, kraški vodni viri zahtevajo primerno in previdno upravljanje. Na žalost pa posebne značilnosti pretakanja voda v kraških pokrajinah niso zadovoljivo upoštevane pri določevanju kriterijev za zavarovanje kraških virov znotraj slovenske zakonodaje. Nasprotno se v nekaterih drugih državah koncept kartiranja občutljivosti podtalnice uspešno uporablja pri določevanju vodovarstvenih pasov in načrtovanju rabe prostora na krasu. Upoštevajoč razlike med posameznimi kraškimi vodonosnimi sistemi, razlik v dostopnosti do podatkov in v ekonomskih zmožnostih so bile izdelane številne metode ocenjevanja in kartiranja občutljivosti kraške podtalnice, ki so bile tudi večkrat uporabljene in preizkušene na različnih testnih poligonih po svetu. V Sloveniji so izkušnje pri aplikaciji različnih metod kartiranja občutljivosti kraških vodonosnikov zelo skromne. V članku so opisani potencialni metodološki problemi, s katerimi se lahko srečamo pri aplikaciji posameznih običajno uporabljanih metod ocenjevanja občutljivosti kraške podtalnice v Sloveniji. ključne besede: upravljanje s kraškimi vodami, varovanje kraških izvirov, pitna voda, ocenjevanje in kartiranje občutljivosti, Slovenija. 1 Karst Research Institute, ZRC SAZU, Titov trg 2, SI-6230 Postojna, Slovenia, e-mail: natasa.ravbar@zrc-sazu.si 2 University of Primorska, Faculty of Humanities Koper, Glagoljaška 8, SI-6000 Koper, e-mail: gregor.kovacic@fs-kp.si Received / Prejeto: 15.09.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2, 73–82, LJUBLJANA 2006 NATAŠA RAVBAR & GREGOR KOVAčIč INTRODUCTION Groundwater from karst aquifers is becoming more and more valuable for drinking water supply. In many regions worldwide it forms the only available drinking water resource. About one quarter of the global population is supplied by karst waters (Goldscheider 2002), while in some Alpine countries karst water contributes up to 50% of needs. In the case of Slovenia this amount reaches 43% (Brečko Grubar & Plut 2001). Extensive areas on the western, south-western, southern and southeastern parts of Slovenia are almost entirely dependent on karst water sources (Fig. 1). Terefore karst aquifers are becoming more and more strategically important and should be appropriately and carefully managed. fig. 1: Te map shows the carbonate rocks extension and the most important karst water sources in Slovenia. Sl. 1: Karta prikazuje razširjenost karbonatnih kamnin in najpomembnejše kraške vodne vire v Sloveniji. Te wide areas of karst regions in Slovenia are either uninhabited or scarcely populated with almost no agricultural activities or only with traditional ones, which is very favourable for water protection. Terefore, the karst aquifers are ofen considered as an abundant high-quality drinking water resource, though they are very vulnerable to pollution and should be managed and protected on a sustainable basis. Unfortunately, in the acts of Slovene legislation, the special characteristics of water fow within karst regions are not very seriously taken into consideration of determining the criteria for karst water sources protection. Furthermore, experience of karst aquifer protection within the frame of vulnerability assessment and mapping is very limited in Slovenia and more efort should be given to this subject in the future. KARST wATER PROTECTION IN SLOVENIA Important karst aquifers in Slovenia are mainly remote in general, is still relatively high, though some signs of and uninhabited areas. Te quality of karst groundwater, contamination have already been recorded in some of the 74 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 KARST wATER MANAGEMENT IN SLOVENIA IN THE FRAME OF VULNERABILITY MAPPING springs (Kovačič & Ravbar 2005). Since the water protection refects in land-use restrictions, the protection of karst water resources is ofen neglected in land-use management. Even where the water protection zones and regimes are established, the implementation of regulations is usually not efective and the control over polluters is weak. Te example of the Bistrica karst spring illustrates some problems of water management in the area of an uninhabited Snežnik karst plateau (Nw Dinarids), where sufcient protection zones have not yet been set up and water protection regulations have not been implemented properly (Kovačič 2003a). Despite relatively favourable conditions for karst water sources protection in Slovenia compared to some other karst areas worldwide, many of the karst water sources still remain insufciently protected. LEGISLATIVE FRAMEwORK Basic legislative provisions concerning karst groundwa-ter protection policy in Slovenia are based on waters Act 2002. Pursuant to the abovementioned Act it is government’s responsibility to establish water protection areas and regimes in karst areas with respective drinking water sources and to ensure the implementation of the provisions in each protection zone. According to the Rules on criteria for the designation of a water protection zone 2004, the hydrological background (i.e. protection area) of a specifc captured karst spring or well should be divided in three basic protection zones. Te outer zone coincides with the boundaries of the entire catchment area, while the frst zone is determined on the basis of transfer time of fow shorter than 12 h. Regarding the abovementioned Rules, the boundaries of water protection zones of karst aquifers should be determined on the basis of data on the velocities of karst groundwater, directions of groundwater fow, depth of water table, attenuation of actual and potential pollutants, chemical characteristics of karst groundwater and the extent and karstifcation degree of hydrological background. Te Rules (2004) recommend several difer-ent methodologies for gathering the data. Carrying out a tracer test in the catchment area of a specifc spring is not an obligatory one, though it is authors’ opinion that it is one of the most appropriate hydrological methods that gives results on the underground fow paths, hydraulic properties of the aquifer and a helpful tool to delineate the catchment area of the particular water source. Such a confguration of legislation, unfortunately, lets the possibility of less accurate delineation of particular water protection zones. Te concept of intrinsic vulnerability assessment and mapping is not directly included in the methodology described in the Rules. PRESENT SITUATION AND PROBLEMS Since the new waters Act 2002 has been in force only for a relatively short period, majority of the karst sources are still protected in accordance with old legislation. According to the old waters Act of 1981 the designation of water protection areas fell within the responsibility of local communities. Tus adequate protection was hindered by administrative borders between these communities. Due to the conficts of interest in land use planning between neighbouring municipalities, protection zone extending over a territory of another municipality has usually not been accepted and the protection regime not established. In the case of the Rižana karst springs, which are tapped for the water supply of the Slovene coastal region, most of the second water protection zone extends over the neighbouring municipalities and even over the neighbouring country (Croatia) and hence is not protected (Kovačič 2003a). As with the Rižana karst springs, for the same reasons many other springs like the Malenščica and the Globečec springs are not suitably protected as well. Te Malenščica spring is an important and the only source of drinking water supplying 20,000 inhabitants and economy of the Postojna and Pivka municipalities. Even though the water protection zones have been delineated and the necessary provisions defned two decades ago (Habič, 1987), the required decrees have not been accepted due to the conficting interests in land use. fig. 2: illustration of the origin-pathway-target model and the concept of the resource and source protection (afer Goldscheider 2005). Sl. 2: ilustracija modela izvor-pot-cilj ter koncept zaščite vodnega vira in podtalnice (po Goldscheider 2005). Te Globočec spring is a regionally signifcant water source, but only protected in the administrative area of one municipality even though more than half of its infu-ential area extends also to the neighbouring administrative areas (Ravbar 2005). Since diferent approaches for the designation of water protection zones have been in use in Slovenia in past decades (Breznik 1976; Rismal 1993; Petauer & Veselič ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 75 NATAŠA RAVBAR & GREGOR KOVAčIč 1997), this has resulted in non-comparable water protection areas and regimes of diferent karst water sources, which is rather problematic for sufcient land-use planning in karst areas (Prestor 2002). Common characteristics of all three approaches are the transfer time delineation criteria, which defne diferent water protection zones, and the division of hydrological background in three basic water protection zones. However, they difer markedly in their method for the determining the extent of individual protection zone, using diferent parameters. Due to the lack of sufcient data, the individual water protection zones were ofen not established on a solid hydrogeological basis, and were thus based only on available information on the geological structure. Nevertheless, for proper protection sufcient studies on source recharge, tracer tests in their catchments and other hydro-logical surveys are needed. Tus such protection zones are ofen insufcient and may be inefective. Nowadays situation in the feld of karst water protection management in Slovenia is, unfortunately, more or less a refection of an old legislation. Since the protection of karst aquifers fell within the responsibility of the government, establishment of karst water protection areas is now not any more hindered by the conficts between land use and the demands for water protection on a local scale. Not many previously established water protection zones have been recently adapted to the new legislation. Tus some inadequately designated water protection zones are still valid. One of the most unfavourable consequences of unregulated conditions in the feld of water protection Te concept of groundwater vulnerability mapping is an alternative approach for successful protection zoning delineation and land use planning in karst. Te concept of groundwater vulnerability indicates the liability of a hydrologic system to contamination, using diferent colours to symbolize diferent degrees of vulnerability. Te fundamental idea is to show that the protection provided by the natural environment varies at diferent locations (Vrba & Zaporozec 1994). As a result the most vulnerable areas can be identifed, and consequently at least those can be protected. However, this concept is not restricted to karst, but is most relevant when applied to karst landscapes (Goldscheider 2005). Regarding the diferences between particular karst aquifer systems, data availability and economic resources, diferent methods on karst water vulnerability assessment and mapping have been developed. In addition, legislation is that there is practically still no control over potential and actual polluters of karst groundwater. Te concept of karst water protection is still based only on the transfer time from the point of infltration to the point of outfow (spring or well). Nevertheless, evaluation of diferent fow velocities (contamination transport times) in a sense of water protection and spatial distribution of diferent values of fow velocities within the background of an outfow is rather challenging. Te characterization of fow and solute (contaminant) transport mechanisms in heterogenous karst aquifers (e. g. diferent values for difuse and point recharge) could meet several problems, as well. Nevertheless, crucial criteria for karst sources protection zones delineation are groundwater velocities. where groundwater fow velocities are high, protection zones would cover large areas, ofen the entire catchment. However, it is impossible to require a high protection for large areas. Such spatial planning would be unreasonable and not practical. Above all, in areas with great market value of the land, rigorous land use restrictions would be controversial (Ravbar 2006). Furthermore, groundwater velocities are not the only crucial aspects to determine higher/lower susceptibility of karst groundwater to contamination. Some other factors afecting the natural attenuation capacity of karst aquifers (e.g. function of protective cover, concentration of fow, karstifcation rate) are of at least the same importance, but are still not properly included in the karst water protection legislation in Slovenia. these have been many times tested and implemented in diferent test sites worldwide. Te existing methods take into account a variety of factors that control the infltra-tion of water and contaminants from the land surface towards the groundwater, such as overlying layers, infltra-tion conditions, degree of karstifcation and precipitation regime. Te frst existing method with special consideration to karst aquifers was the EPIK method (Doerfiger & Zwahlen 1998), which strongly infuenced the later methods. quite a few of the lately developed methods are based on the work undertaken by the COST Action 620 that developed the European Approach (Zwahlen 2004), a conceptual framework for karst groundwater intrinsic vulnerability assessment and mapping. Individual groups and individuals within the COST Action 620 have taken this approach as the basis for the particular methodology development. Te European VULNERABILITY MAPPING AS AN ALTERNATIVE CONCEPT 76 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 KARST wATER MANAGEMENT IN SLOVENIA IN THE FRAME OF VULNERABILITY MAPPING Approach takes into consideration four parameters (overlaying layers, concentration of fow, karst network development and precipitation regime). A signifcant infuence to the European Approach came from the previously developed PI method (Gold-scheider 2002). It is based on an origin-target-pathway model. Te origin is the term used to describe the location of a contaminant release. Te term pathway is a fow path of a contaminant from the point of release (origin) to the target, which may be the groundwater surface or a drinking water abstraction point e.g. spring or well (Daly et al., 2002; Goldscheider 2005). Tere are two general approaches of a water protection: resource protection aims to protect the whole groundwater body and source protection that aims to protect a particular spring or well. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SLOVENE KARST LANDSCAPES Direct application of some existing vulnerability mapping methods could meet several difculties frst of all due to the specifc characteristics of the Slovene karst. In Slovenia karst regions extend over 43% of the country, spreading from the Karavanke range and the plateaus of the Julian and Kamniške-Savinjske Alps at an altitude of 2500 m to the shore of the Mediterranean Sea and Dinar-ic karst on the south. Large karst massifs and karst plateaus, intersected by shallow karst areas, karst poljes and valleys, characterize these landscapes. Tick sequences of very pure and deeply karstifed limestones and dolomites of the Mesozoic era prevail. Te depth of the unsaturated zone can reach several hundreds of meters, in the mountain massifs even 1500 m and more. Carbonate rocks are of very good to medium permeability, the groundwater fow velocities are ranging between 0.02 and 29.6 cm/s, respectively from 0.72 m/h to 1065.6 m/h (Novak 1993). Less permeable or impermeable deposits traversing karst areas, border karst aquifers and prevent the underground runof; so do fysch and less permeable dolomite layers caused by folding and thrusting. Slovene karst landscapes are strongly tectonically modifed. Fault zones that intersect or border karst areas can act as hydrologi-cal barrier as well. Consequently, karst underground water emerges to the surface through numerous efcacious springs at the aquifers edges. Catchment areas of most of them are very complex, covering karst and non-karst areas as well. Catchments ofen extend over several tens or even hundreds km2 and In some of the countries respective vulnerability mapping approaches have also been integrated in the states legislation e.g the Irish Method in Ireland (GSI 1999), the SINTACS method in Italy (Civita & De Maio 1997). Te EPIK method (Doerfiger & Zwahlen 1998) has been integrated in Swiss legislation only for karst sources. Te GLA method (Hölting et al., 1995) is a supplement to the German groundwater protection schemes. However, in Slovenia experiences of such application are very modest. Only two karst spring vulnerability studies have been done so far; Janža & Prestor (2002) using the SINTACS and Petrič & Šebela (2004) using the EPIK method. are hydraulically connected over long distances. watersheds are ofen overlapping and the fow paths proved by tracer tests ofen cross each other. Furthermore, it is practically impossible to defne the position of individual springs’ watersheds, precisely due to their high variability in time and strong dependence on the respective hydro-logic conditions. Namely, in dependence on the respective hydrologic conditions in several karst areas frequent and very high groundwater fuctuations appear (several tens up to few hundred meters). Consequently, also variable fow velocities, changing fow directions and surface-underground fow interactions result. Very thin or mostly absent protective soil cover and common absence of other protective overlaying layers, such as subsoil and non-karst rocks is signifcant. Te average annual precipitation amounts ranges from 1000 up to 4000 mm in the mountainous areas. METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS AND OPEN qUESTIONS Regarding the peculiarity of individual intrinsic vulnerability mapping methods, the adequacy of the criteria such as parameter selection and the method of parameter weighting, diferent difculties might arise when applying a particular method to Slovene karst. In many of the existing methods the characteristics of the layers lying above the saturated zone are the most important factor controlling natural protection of groundwater against contamination (self-cleaning or carrying capacity). Some among the methods provide assessment schemes, where protective function assess- METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS AND SPECIFICS OF KARST AqUIFER VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT AND MAPPING IN SLOVENIA ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 77 NATAŠA RAVBAR & GREGOR KOVAčIč ment consists of up to four layers of the unsaturated zone (topsoil, subsoil, non-karst rocks and karst rocks). Such a very detailed system of protective function assessment requires a vast amount of data, which is a special problem in Slovenia, discussed below. Te assessment of the overlying layers protective function has been shown to be one of the major problems in one of the previous applications as well (Janža & Prestor 2002). Because of the common absence of soil and/or sediment cover in Slovene karst, the protective function value would mainly be infuenced by the depth of the unsaturated zone. Due to the enormous thickness of the unsaturated zone, the protective values would ofen be classifed as “moderate”, not showing the vulnerability diferences within the aquifer itself. Terefore, the selection of only two parameters (soil and lithological characteristics of the unsaturated zone) together with a not very detailed system of protective function assessment could be suitable as well (Fig. 3). fig. 3: An example of a bare karst surface on Kanin high mountain plateau (2587 m), where the depth of the unsaturated zone exceeds 1500 m (photo: G. Kovačič). Sl. 3: Primer golega kraškega površja na visoki kraški planoti Kanin (2587 m), kjer je debelina nezasičene cone večja od 1500 m (foto: G. Kovačič). 78 Tere is a problem in assessing a hydrological function of epikarst, where storage of water and concentration of fow occur. Te frst process increases the natural protection of karst aquifer, while the latter increases vulnerability of the karst system. Te problem of epikarst is that its existence is not always easily recognizable by the surface karst features. Furthermore, great spatial difer-ences of its development on short distances are present ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 – 2006 due to heterogeneity of karst landscapes (Kovačič 2003b). Te concept of mapping surface karst features indicating the existence of diferent tectonically crushed zones within karst aquifer and consequently the occurrence of more or less developed epikarst zones was successfully introduced by Petrič & Šebela (2004). Furthermore, there is still a question how to consider areas with great groundwater level oscillations, where KARST wATER MANAGEMENT IN SLOVENIA IN THE FRAME OF VULNERABILITY MAPPING groundwater level varies for several tens or even hundreds of meters in a short time and causes great change of drainage divides and fow directions. Te protective-ness of the unsaturated zone in highly karstifed rocks is generally considered to be fairly low. Variable thickness of this zone would consequently have limited impact on fnal vulnerability value. However, groundwater level fuctuations might alter catchment boundaries, which is crucial for source vulnerability mapping and should therefore be additionally considered (Ravbar & Golds-cheider, in press). Due to great groundwater level oscillations, some karst landscapes in Slovenia are also characterised by surface and groundwater fow alteration that is relevant with respect to groundwater vulnerability (Figs. 4 & 5). Intermittent river fows and lakes, some of which appear several times per year, while others occur only very ex- rainfall” conditions that occur several times per year (Goldscheider 2002). Te degree of vulnerability of the area characterised by surface and groundwater fow alteration may vary drastically in dependence on respective hydrologic conditions. Terefore, when making vulnerability maps, a distinction should be made between zones of concentrated infltration that are permanently drained into swallow holes and those that are only occasionally drained into karst. In the vulnerability assessment, special emphasis must be given on the function of the sinking rivers, which occur within karst poljes or recharge in non-karst areas and sink on the contact with carbonates. Te latter can have either huge or small catchments, which has to be considered in vulnerability assessment, since swallow holes are points of concentration of fow, causing fast infltration of surface waters and contaminants towards fig. 4 and 5: Te intermittent lake Petelinjsko jezero is fooded up to six months per year. At low groundwater level a shallow karst depression is dry (lef), while at high groundwater level it is fooded and forms a lake (right). Te degree of vulnerability of the area may vary drastically depending on respective hydrologic conditions (photo: N. Ravbar). Sl. 4 in 5: Presihajoče Petelinjsko jezero je poplavljeno do šest mesecev na leto. Ob nizkem vodostaju je kraška depresija suha (levo), medtem ko je od visokih vodah poplavljena in spremenjena v jezero (desno). v odvisnosti od trenutnih hidroloških pogojev se lahko stopnja občutljivosti na tem območju izrazito razlikuje (foto: N. Ravbar). ceptionally, as well as temporary springs, swallow holes and estavelles are signifcant. Consequently only in a case when a water body (river, lake) is frequently or permanently sinking into karst, a contaminant release would always and rapidly reach the groundwater without sig-nifcant attenuation. On the other hand, a contaminant transport and its attenuation capacities might vary drastically where there are no temporary or perennial water fow conditions (Ravbar & Goldscheider, in press). So far the existing methods do not provide suf-cient tools to cope with hydrologic variability. Te EPIK method takes into account temporary or perennial water fow conditions (Doerfiger & Zwahlen 1998). Similarly the PI method takes into consideration “average storm the groundwater. A question arises, how to delineate the infuence area of such surface fow on karst aquifer, since the surface fows have their own self-cleaning capacities (Kovačič 2003b). Furthermore, Slovene legislation demands individual water source protection. Nevertheless, resembling some European countries, no resource protection policy has been provided so far. For source vulnerability assessment where captured springs and wells are the targets (see the origin-pathway-target model above), the additional horizontal fow path in the saturated zone, the so-called K factor, has to be considered. So far only the EPIK method provided tools for the K factor assessment. Te European Approach is foreseeing incorporation of ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 79 NATAŠA RAVBAR & GREGOR KOVAčIč the K factor into the vulnerability assessment as well, but does not specify how it should be measured or categorized. Terefore in many cases an additional step from resource to source vulnerability mapping should be done if we would like an application to be adequate to Slovene legislation. when applying the SINTACS method Janža and Prestor (2002) added an extra criterion of cave density for implementing the unsaturated zone attenuation capacity and hydraulic conductivity range of aquifer into the proposed method. However, the information on cave density is not relevant criterion for the karstifcation degree assessment as it can refect the degree of research work in a certain area. Furthermore, size, connection and density of karst conduits or caves are ofen results of previous climate conditions. In general, the conduit size aspect cannot be acceptable criteria, because even a relatively small degree of karstifcation (e.g. conduits 10 cm wide) can result in very high travel times and very rapid contaminant transport without signifcant attenuation. On the contrary, for the mostly horizontal pathway through the saturated karst bedrock to the source, the groundwater fow characteristics and distance to the source have to be considered. Te European Approach considers also the assessment of the P (precipitation regime) factor, which modifes other parameters and thus the fnal assessment of vulnerability as well. Some of the methods (SINTACS, PI and COP) have already introduced the precipitation characteristics into their schemes. Te question is, whether it is practical to assess the value of precipitation regime within the small area of the same aquifer, since it is not very likely that the diferences in intensity and amounts of precipitation vary signifcantly between particular parts of a catchment and thus not essentially infuence its vulnerability. However, it has already been shown that when applying the COP method in many different aquifers across Europe, the P factor itself has small correlation with the fnal vulnerability values and shows important diferences only when the method is applied to the aquifers with diferent climate characteristics (Vías et al., 2006). Nevertheless, if introducing the P factor it would be recommendable to consider the efective infltration instead, since it presents the true amount of water infl-trating into the subsurface. Furthermore, higher vulnerability (i.e. higher transport velocities, shorter transit time, more turbulent fow, more efective transport of sediments and bacteria, mobilisation of DNAPL – Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid, more surface fow etc.) does not only depend on the actual amount of water infltrat-ing into the subsurface but also on the previous soil and epikarst zone water saturation. However, there is a methodological problem, how to evaluate the protective function of a P factor as well. Do the greater amounts of infltrating water increase the vulnerability of a karst system (faster contaminant wash-of, shorter transfer time - less time for appropriate intervention) or do they contribute to the groundwater protection (dilution, faster reduction of contaminants’ concentrations, shorter duration of contamination)? As mentioned before, in Slovene karst many areas drain into several abundant springs at the aquifers margins. In case of springs’ watersheds overlapping, vulnerability maps of diferent sources might show diferent values of vulnerability due to respective springs. Tis raises a question, which source vulnerability map/value should be considered as more important. In terms of protection degree and spatial planning, the highest degree of vulnerability should be considered. However, when planning the implementation of sanitary provisions in water protection zones, also an additional parameter indicating the economic and/or social importance of a particular water source should be considered. Accurate and detailed studies are essential for vulnerability assessment. Several problems are expected and have also been confrmed while applying some of the existing vulnerability mapping methods in Slovene karst landscapes due to poor database, data availability and assessment. If the method requires very large amount of detail data, it does not only makes vulnerability assessment more expensive, but also makes the application less fexible and ofen unsuitable, as very rarely is a large amount of data available. Particularly scarce are data in remote and mountainous karst areas. In addition, methods that require grid input information (e.g. the SINTACS method) are not very appropriate for the application in karst areas, since the karst aquifers are very heterogenous systems characterised by great and inherent changes in small area. 80 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 KARST wATER MANAGEMENT IN SLOVENIA IN THE FRAME OF VULNERABILITY MAPPING CONCLUSION In Slovenia karst aquifers are of special economic importance. Even though the quality of the groundwater is still relatively high, some sources of contamination have already been recorded, showing the shortcomings of water management even in the uninhabited alpine karst areas, which are ordinarily very favourable for water protection (Kovačič & Ravbar 2005). In order to protect the quality and quantity of water sources and resources for future generations the concept of groundwater vulnerability mapping and assessment has been in the past decades more and more coming to the fore. Assessment of groundwater vulnerability evaluates the intrinsic characteristics of the aquifer systems and subdivides an area into several units showing different degrees of natural protection. It provides a useful conceptual framework, which could be the basis for the water protection zones and regimes establishment (Vrba & Zaporozec 1994). Nowadays various methodologies are in use, among which also methods with special consideration of karst aquifers have been introduced. However, experiences on application using methods for vulnerability mapping of karst aquifers are very limited in Slovenia. In future, application of some of the most commonly used methods should be stimulated in order to subject eventual methodological problems that may arise during the application. Comparison of diferent methods in a single test site is therefore advisable. Considering spe-cifc characteristics of Slovene karst (very thin or mostly absent protective cover, very complex and large catchment areas, lack of quality and representative research, poor database, problem of data availability, etc.) selection among the simplest methods would be reasonable. Methods that require very detailed data on protective cover characteristics or require very thorough database on catchment area should thus be avoided. Eventually, according to adequacy of particular criteria, such as parameter selection, parameter weighting and fnal assessment reckoning the most satisfactory among the existing methods should be selected and improved if necessary. To propose a common method for karst water source vulnerability mapping its validation using hydrological and statistical methods is essential. Finally, a common method, which would be the basis for the water protection zones and regimes establishment, could be used for resource protection and land use planning in karst aquifers. Furthermore, it could be a supplement to the existing legislation for karst sources protection. According to the Rules (2004), the main criterion for the delineation of the source protection zones is the travel time of groundwater in the aquifer. However, a vulnerability assessment and mapping could be an additional criterion for karst sources protection. It could present a supplement for reduction and/or enlargement in the size of the zones where necessary according to the intrinsic properties of a particular catchment area. Furthermore, source and resource maps could be practical tool for future land use management, spatial planning of human activities and for the sanitary provisions planning in water protection zones as well. REFERENCES Brečko Gruber, V. & D. Plut, 2001: Kakovost virov pitne vode v Sloveniji.- Ujma, 14-15, 238-244, Ljubljana. Breznik, M., 1976: Metodologija zaščite podzemne pitne vode ter določitve varstvenih območij in pasov. Regionalni prostorski plan RS 3/4. Zasnove uporabe prostora. Vodno gospodarstvo Ljubljana, Zavod SRS za družbeno planiranje, 176 p. Civita, M. & M. De Maio, 1997: SINTACS: Un sistema parametrico per la valutazione e la cartografa della vulnerabilita degli acquiferi all’inquinamento. Met-odologia & automatizzazione. Pitagora Editrice, 208 p., Bologna. Daly, D., Dassargues, A., Drew, D., Dunne, S., Golds-cheider N., Neale, S., Popescu, I.C. & F. Zwahlen, 2002: Main concepts of the »European approach« to karst-groundwater-vulnerability assessment and mapping.- Hydrogeology Journal, 10, 340-345. Doerfiger, N. & F. Zwahlen, 1998: Practical Guide, Groundwater Vulnerability Mapping in Karstic Regions (EPIK). Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape (SAEFL), 56 p., Bern. Goldscheider, N., 2002: Hydrogeology and vulnerability of karst systems – examples from the Northern Alps and Swabian Alb.- PhD Tesis. University of Karlsruhe, Faculty for Bio- and Geoscience, 236 p., Karlsruhe. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 81 NATAŠA RAVBAR & GREGOR KOVAčIč Goldscheider, N., 2005: Karst groundwater vulnerability mapping: application of a new method in the Swabian Alb, Germany.- Hydrogeology Journal, 13, 555-564. GSI (1999): Groundwater protection schemes. Geological Survey of Ireland, 24 p. Habič, P. , 1987: Raziskave kraških izvirov v Malnih pri Planini in zaledja vodnih virov v občini Postojna.-Tipkano poročilo, 58 p., Archive Karst Research Institute SRC SASA, Postojna. Hölting, B., Haertlé, T., Hohberger, K. H., Nachtigall, K. H., Villinger, E., weinzierl, w. & J. P. wrobel, 1995: Konzept zur Ermittlung der Schutzfunkzion der Grundwasserüberdeckung.- Geol. Jb., C63, 5-20. Janža, M. & J. Prestor, 2002: Ocena naravne ranljivosti vodonosnika v zaledju izvira Rižane po metodi SIN-TACS.- Geologija, 45/2, 401-406, Ljubljana. Kovačič, G., 2003a: Te protection of karst aquifers: the example of the Bistrica karst spring (Sw Slovenia).-Acta Carsologica, 32/2, 219-234, Ljubljana. Kovačič, G., 2003b: Parametrične metode kartiranja občutljivosti kraških vodonosnikov – pregled, primerjava in kritika.- Seminarska naloga. Univerza na Primorskem, Fakulteta za humanistične študije, 77 p., Ilirska Bistrica. Kovačič, G. & N. Ravbar, 2005: A review of the potential and actual sources of pollution to groundwater in selected karst areas in Slovenia.- Natural Hazards and Earth Systems Science, 5/2, 225-233. Novak, D., 1993: Hydrogeological research of the Slovenian karst.- Naše jame, 35, 1, 15-20, Ljubljana. Petauer, D. & M. Veselič, 1997: Metodologija določevanja zaščitenih območij podzemnih voda. Ministrstvo za okolje in prostor, 13 p., Ljubljana. Petrič, M. & S. Šebela, 2004: Vulnerability mapping in the recharge area of the Korentan spring, Slovenia.-Acta Carsologica, 33/2, 151-168, Ljubljana. Prestor, J., 2002: Problematika določanja varstvenih pasov in razporeditve ukrepov za zaščito vodnih virov.- Zbornik seminarjev Varstvo in kvaliteta pitne vode, Inštitut za sanitarno inženirstvo, 69-77. Ravbar, N., 2005: Spill of dangerous substances in the catchment area of the Globočec karst spring, SE Slovenia.- In: Stevanović, Z., Milanović, P. (Eds.) water resources and environmental problems in karst, 193-200, Belgrade. Ravbar, N., 2006: Te protection of karst water sources in Slovenia.- In: Duran, J. J., Andreo, B. & F. Carrasco (Eds.). Congreso Internacional sobre el agua subter-ranea en los paises Mediterraneos. Karst, climate change and groundwater, 231-237, Malaga. Ravbar, N. & N. Goldscheider, (in press): Integrating temporal hydrologic variations into karst ground-water vulnerability mapping – examples from Slovenia.- 8th Conference on Limestone Hydrogeology, Neuchâtel. Rismal, M., 1993: Zaščita podtalnice - Strokovno navodilo za izdelavo normativnih aktov za zavarovanje kakovosti podtalnice, FAGG, Ljubljana. Rules on criteria for the designation of a water protection zone. 2004: Ofcial Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, 64, 8111-8128. Vías, J. M., Andreo, B., Neukum, C. & H. Hötzl, 2006: Aplicación del método COP para la evaluación de la vulnerabilidad del aquífero carboná tico de Baus-chlotter Platte (Alemania). Comparación de resulta-dos con otros aquíferos del sur de Espana.- In: Du-ran, J. J., Andreo, B. & F. Carrasco (Eds.). Congreso Internacional sobre el agua subterranea en los paises Mediterraneos. Karst, climate change and ground-water, 249-256, Malaga. Vrba, J. & A. Zaporozec, (Eds.) 1994: Guidebook on mapping groundwater vulnerability.- International association of hydrogeologists. Verlag Hienz Heise, Vol. 16, 131 p., Hannover. waters Act. 1981: Ofcial Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, 38, 2308-2320. waters Act. 2002: Ofcial Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, 67, 7648-7680. Zwahlen, F., 2004: Vulnerability and Risk Mapping for the Protection of Carbonate (Karstic) Aquifers. Final report COST action 620.- European Commission, Directorate-General for Research, 297 p., Brüssel, Luxemburg. 82 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 COBISS: 1.01 TRACING OF THE STREAM FLOwING THROUGH THE CAVE FERRANOVA BUžA, CENTRAL SLOVENIA SLEDENJE POTOKA V JAMI FERRANOVA BUžA NAD VRHNIKO Miha STAUT1 & Primož AUERSPERGER2 Abstract UDC 556.34.04 Miha Staut & Primož Auersperger: Tracing of the stream fow-ing through the cave Ferranova buža, central Slovenia Te article discusses the characteristics of the recently discovered ground water stream in the cave Ferranova buža and its possible karstic hydrological system. Its upstream connections have been narrowed to few possible springs by means of logical exclusion and have yet to be confrmed. For the purpose of establishing its linkage to the downstream springs around Vrhnika a water tracing experiment has been performed. Uranine was used as a tracer and sampled in intervals of eight hours at Primc’s spring, Bečkaj’s spring and Kožuh’s spring. Te connection was proved in all three observation points, with Kožuh’s spring draining the largest quantity of the tracer. Te tracer experiment evidenced that the dye was completely fushed downward in single transition curve almost without any retention. keywords: karst, hydrology, water tracing, fuoresceine sodi- Izvleček UDK 556.34.04 Miha Staut & Primož Auersperger: Sledenje potoka v jami Ferranova buža nad Vrhniko Prispevek obravnava značilnosti nedavno odkritega podzemnega vodotoka v jami Ferranova buža in njegovega kraškega hidrološkega sistema. Njegove gorvodne povezave so bile zožene na nekaj možnih virov s pomočjo logičnega izločanja. Za potrebe dognanja povezav z dolvodnimi izviri okrog Vrhnike, je bil izveden sledilni poskus. Uporabljeno sledilo je bilo uranin z intervalom vzorčenja na osem ur v Primcovem, Bečkajevem in Kožuhovem izviru. Povezava je bila dokazana z vsemi tremi izviri, vendar se je največja količina sledila pojavila v Kožuhovem izviru. Glede na rezultate sledenja je moč zaključiti, da se je uranin prenesel v enkratnem homogenem valu in da obstaja majhna verjetnost, da se je kje zadržal dlje. ključne besede: kras, hidrologija, vodno sledenje, uranin. INTRODUCTION If a caver asked us what is Ferranova buža like, despite probable sighs from the caving colleagues we would answer him, it is a thankful cave. It is not the intention to delve here into the relation that gradually establishes between the cave and its explorer(s). Tat relation is undoubtedly something special and needs a separate investigation, but would among karstologists probably sound too “personal” and thus un-scientifc. Te intention is to emphasize that afer all the eforts put into it, it always knew how to return the favour with new and new surprising discoveries and in that way flled the game with satisfaction that lasts for already more that four years. It presented us with one of those gifs afer one of our club’s meetings when we decided to trace the stream disappearing in the terminal siphon of the cave. with the aid of some pretty rudimentary techniques we managed to achieve at frst glance high quality results. 1 Jamarski klub železničar, Hrvatski trg 2, 1000, Ljubljana, e-mail: mihastaut@yahoo.co.uk 2 JP Vodovod-Kanalizacija d.o.o., Vodovodna cesta 90, Ljubljana, e-mail: pauersperger@vo-ka.si Received/Prejeto:14.09.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2, 83–89, LJUBLJANA 2006 um. MIHA STAUT & PRIMOž AUERSPERGER GENERAL GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL DESCRIPTION Te entrance to Ferranova buža is located about 900 metres eastwards from the summit of Ulovka on the elevation 660 m above sea level (a.s.l.). Afer Buser (1968), Ulovka is structured by the Zaplanina nappe, where the upper Triassic dolomites are over-thrusted on the Cretaceous and Jurassic limestones of Logatec-Cerknica block. Limestones outcrop only southwards from the valley of Bela and in a narrow strip between Sveta trojica and Ulovka. Te surface of the Ulovka massif is therefore dominated by a weakly expressed karstic morphology with a low drainage density and rare dolines. Te upper part of Ferranova buža evolved in the dolomite along one of the regional faults crossing the Ulo-vka massif in a dinaric direction. On the depth of 160 m, where the cave signifcantly widens it passes into the limestone which can be traced down to the current bottom at 306 m a.s.l. Te narrow upper part of the cave here actually joins a gallery of a completely diferent character with an active fow that in the direction about 100° passes by (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2). In this second wider part the cave evolved along one or more bedding planes dipping southwards initially under the angle of 40° but towards the bottom steepen up to 70°. with regard to the proximity of the Jurassic limestones it may be deducted that the cave crosses the Zaplanina nappe structure on the junction of the upper and the lower part of the cave. In that respect the cave would be one of the rare known cases of such crossings in Slovenia. showed contamination with faecal bacteria, evidencing that the cave stream is not the consequence of gathering of percolating water through the dolomite, such as in the case of the springs Lintvern and Staje (Habič, 1976). Tese two spring from dolomite about 1 km south-westwards from the entrance of the cave and were used for the Vrhnika’s water supply. Following the allogenic assumption, the map of sinking streams from Rovte hills (Fig. 2), that were predominantly traced into Kožuh’s, Primc’s and Bečkaj’s springs in Vrhnika (Bauer et al., 1976; Habič, 1976; Habič, 1996), indicates possible origins of the water in the cave. Te plan of the cave in Fig. 2 overlaps to some extent with the upper reaches of the stream Korita and is therefore dif-cult to spot. Accounting for the elevation and with regard to the results of extensive water tracing experiments in the catchment of the Ljubljanica river (Bauer et al., 1976), ponors on the Planinsko polje can be excluded as possible sources of the water in the cave as the stream appears in the cave exactly on 500 m a.s.l. (metres above sea level). Te same is true for the Logaščica sinking at about 450 m a.s.l. as well as the Petkovščica. Te later fows into Loška jama with its bottom reaching below the critical depth. Te Hotenjka, the Močilka, the Hlevišarka and the žejska voda were at large traced towards Podroteja and Divje jezero. For the purpose of the Hotenjka tracing the Kožuh spring was sampled for the frst time. Due to its too deep sinking cave it can be excluded similarly stream appearing in the cave — g > 1.9 (Blackwell, 1995, Table 2). Zeroing reduces an ESR signal’s intensity to a level indistinguishable from background levels. Most newly formed minerals have no measurable ESR signals. In a mineral with an accumulated dose (i.e., a measurable signal; A? > 0), several physical processes can also zero a signal. Strong heating to temperatures above 250-500°C, depending on the mineral, will also zero most ESR signals (Figure 2b). For some signals in a few minerals, exposure to intense sunlight can zero (bleach) the signal (Figure 2a). Luckily, for the radiation-sensitive signals in most minerals, sunlight causes little or no signal loss. High fig. 2: Zeroing in quartz and chert. in quartz, several signals can be zeroed using diferent techniques: a. Exposure to intense Uv radiation and sunlight can completely bleach the Ge (germanium) signal and partially bleach the Al (aluminium), ti (titanium), and OhC (oxygen hole) signals. b. heating archaeological chert to high temperature can zero the E' signal, reducing its accumulated dose, A?, to 0. Afer zeroing, the signals can regrow if given more irradiation. (adapted from Blackwell, 2001). 126 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE (ESR) DATING IN KARST ENVIRONMENTS fig. 3: Efects from shear strain on ESR signals in quartz. Shear strain will reset most ESR signals: a. As strain increases, the diferences in ESR intensity between diferent grain size fractions decreases. b. At a normal stress of 10 mPa, the measured accumulated (equivalent) dose, A?', decreases with decreasing grain size for both the E' and Al signals, until at a small grain size the two signals give equal A?, determinations. c. while the E' signal is the most easily reset, strain also afects the Al signal. Te ti signal appears unafected. d. during artifcial irradiation for producing a growth curve, the smaller grain sizes show the greatest sensitivity and the most well behaved growth curves. (modifed from lee & Schwarcz, 1993). pressure or strain that builds up in faults can partially or fully reset some signals, as can the strain developed during comminution during an earthquake or grinding for sample preparation (Figure 3). Remineralization and diagenesis add new minerals whose radiation-sensitive signals will be zero at formation. Terefore, if the original and new minerals have signals with similar g values, the resultant complex signal may be impossible to resolve, adding inaccuracies to the age determination. If, howev- er, the new signals do not interfere with the original signals, as is true for tooth enamel, only the dating signal’s intensity is reduced, thereby reducing the discriminatory range and dating limits for the technique (Skinner et al., 2000). Te method’s reliability depends on the signal’s thermal stability. Signals which zero easily at typical Earth surface temperatures have little value for dating, but may provide other information. Te mean signal lifetime, ?, ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 127 BONNIE A. B. BLACKwELL must exceed the desired dating range by at least 2-3 orders therefore, to the total radiation dose, A?, that the mate-of magnitude to ensure reliable ages. In tooth enamel, for rial has experienced. Te ESR age, t1, the time that has example, ? ? 1019 y (Skinner et al., 2000), sufciently long, elapsed since the mineral formed and began to accumu-in theory at least, to date anything within the history of late charges then is calculated from Equation 1, the universe. Unlike TL, no datable ESR signal appears to sufer anomalous fading. In practice, however, most signals have a fnite saturation limit, beyond which no new trapped electrons are formed. Many minerals also have a steady state level, somewhat lower than their saturation level, caused by electron loss and retrapping (Figure 1b). Te mean signal lifetime and the steady state limit or saturation limit defne the maximum datable age, while the ESR spectrometer’s ability to discriminate between the dating signal and its surrounding background determines the minimum dating limit. Both limits difer depending on the mineral and its habit in the material to be dated. Te radiation dose rates experienced by the sample determine how those limits are translated into an actual age. If samples experience high radiation dose rates, the minimum datable age will be relative low, but so will its maximum datable age, and conversely, low radiation dose rates mean higher minimum and maximum limits. Te ESR signal height (Figure 1d) is proportional to the number of trapped charges at that lattice site, and, SAMPLE SAMPLE COLLECTION An ideal ESR sample should be as pristine as possible. To improve precision and accuracy, both the dating sample and any associated sediment samples should not experience the following treatments during or afer excavation: 1. Glues, shellacs, and other preservatives can add contaminant U to the sample that reduces the accuracy of internal dose rate measurements, as well as organic compounds that might cause ESR signal interference. 2. washing may remove U, datable mineral, and sediment. Sediment attached to the sample may ofer the only chance to measure the external dose rates. 3. If used to remove samples from cemented sediment, acid dissolution can dissolve the sample and leach its U. 4. Removing attached bone from teeth reduces the accuracy of the external dose rate measurements. 5. Removing attached sediment from any sample reduces the accuracy of the external dose rate measurements. 6. Sample numbering uses inks and paints that can add contaminant organic compounds if applied to the sample. 7. Allowing clay samples to dry necessitates extensive grinding during preparation which can partially bleach some ESR signals. A =A +A = ft1D(t)dt = ("t1(D (t)+D (t))dt (1) ? int ext »"to ? »"to int ext where A? = the total accumulated dose in the sample, A = the internally derived accumulated dose compo- int nent, A = the externally derived accumulated dose compo- ext nent, D?(t) = the total dose rate, Dint(t) = the total dose rate from internal sources: U, its daughters, and any other radioisotopes, D (t) = the total dose rate from the external environ- ext ment: sedimentary U, T, and K, and cosmic dose, t = the samples age, 1 t0 = today. For samples in which the total dose rate, D?(t), is con- stant, this reduces to Ay t1 =-----— (2) Dj(t) 8. Packing samples for transport with materials, such as old newspapers, dyed paper, etc., can cause trace elements or organic contamination if they contact the sample. Te best packing is cheap unbleached, unper-fumed toilet paper. Although preservatives, if available, can be analyzed to correct for contamination efects, any resulting age will still have reduced precision. Fossils can be cast, providing that the casting resin and powder have been tested for contamination potential frst. For all dating samples except teeth, diagenesis or signal interference may cause some samples to be unsuitable (Table 1). Since fossils can be easily reworked into younger depositional units, any sampling program should collect at least 8-10 samples from each stratigraphic unit to increase the chance that the samples analyzed provide dates related to the event of interest. Although the required sample weight varies depending on the auxiliary analyses necessary (Table 1), the ESR analysis itself, and the associated NAA or geochemical analyses to measure the internal dose rate, require 1-2 g of pristine datable mineral per standard ESR subsample. For some materials, especially those prone to diagenesis, it is necessary to check for secondary mineralization and remineraliza- 128 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE (ESR) DATING IN KARST ENVIRONMENTS tion, which afect ESR signal intensities (Table 1), thus requiring larger samples. For samples needing to be separated into discrete mineral phases, such as authigenic cements, caliche, calcrete, and gypcrete, the pristine mineral must be separated from the adjacent sediment, ofen necessitating much larger samples (usually, at least 15-20 g). For ESR dating sediment, pristine sample blocks of ~ 0.5 kg cut from thick or extensive units provide the best results, if available. For very small samples (100-200 mg), the ramping irradiation technique can be used in which several aliquots are reirradiated several times, but the special handling does lengthen the total analysis time signifcantly. SEDIMENT DOSIMETRY AND A Many karst sites have sediment which is inhomogeneous (i.e., “lumpy”; Figure 1d, 4d) for radioactive dose generation. Tis is particularly true in caves where sedimentary inhomogeneity is the rule, rather than the exception. whenever possible, the external dose rates should be assessed using at least two procedures from among isochron analysis, sediment geochemistry, in situ ? or TL dosimetry. For TL or ? dosimetry, if dosimetry cannot be completed before collection, sampling locations need to be marked and preserved to permit future dosimetry. Efective TL dosimetry requires that the area within 3 m of the dosimeter insertion site be unafected by further excavation or erosion for 6-12 months. In open-air sites, however, either ? dosimetry or sedimentary analysis is preferred over TL dosimetry, because TL dosimeters rarely survive undisturbed for the needed time. Isochron analysis is still experimental for many materials. with sedimentary geochemistry, the external dose feld can be mathematically modelled reasonably accurately. In sediment, ß particles can penetrate about 2-3 mm, and ? radiation ~ 30 cm (Figure 4). Te sediment immediately attached to, or surrounding, the dating sample usually provides the only direct measurement for calculating the ß radiation dose rate. when using ? or TL dosimetry, this sediment must still be analyzed geo-chemically to provide the external ß dose rate. Several sediment samples may be needed to represent the sphere infuenced by ? radiation 30 cm in radius around the dating sample. Sediment sampling protocols vary with the bed or unit thickness, its mineralogy, and its grain size (see Table 2; Figure 5). In many sedimentary contexts, the radioactive element concentrations can vary dramatically over short distances if the sediment contains large clasts of several diferent minerals (“lumpy”; Figure Most curated museum samples require isochron analysis (see below), because sediment has not usually been preserved. Salt samples need to be stabilized to prevent remineralization or recrystallization during transport, as can occur with some hydrated salts. For samples intended for isochron analysis, samples should be photographed before shipping to ensure that broken samples can be reconstructed to maximize the number of viable subsamples. Samples should be packed tightly with minimal air to reduce sample breakage and bag destruction. OCIATED SEDIMENT SAMPLES 4d). Tis requires collecting several samples from each unit or bed which might have contributed to the dating sample’s external dose rate. If the sediment contains a homogeneous grain mixture of fne to medium grained clasts, ~ 5-10 g are sufcient for each associated sediment sample. For coarser sediment types, sediment samples should include representative portions of cobbles mixed with the matrix. Alternatively, separate matrix and cobble samples can be submitted, provided relative volume percentages of the various types are known. In units with fossils or artefacts, these must be considered as radioactive sources and analyzed also (Blackwell & Blickstein, 2000). Generally, the larger the grains, the larger the sediment mass that will be needed. In well cemented sedimentary units (e.g., “breccias”, etc.), a block of sediment (20 cm on a side) showing all representative grains, matrix, and cements on the surfaces ofen provides the best sample. If all the sediment samples preferred in the ideal circumstance are not available, sediment from the same or similar beds as close as possible to the dating sample can still be used to assess the radiation dose feld’s variability and estimate external dose rates. For museum samples, any samples from nearby outcrops may provide valuable clues. Accurately recording and photographing each sediment sample relative to the dating sample ensures accuracy in modelling the external dose feld. All in situ sediment samples should be placed in clean, sealed jars or doubly bagged in new zip-lock bags immediately afer collection to retain sediment moisture for water concentration analysis. For sections that have been exposed for a long time, or archived sediment, sediment moisture content is not analyzed. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 129 o > C. > 7: G r. > S 5c Sample type Minerals1 Zeroing req'd? Isochrons possible?1 Species effects?1 Best type or species? Minimum sample for standard ESR23 (g/subsample) Effects from diagenesis, secondary mineralization, or cementation Incomplete zeroing? Effects from grinding? Signal intensity Interference? Inaccurate ages? Enamel HAP no yes no large teeth; no milk teeth 3-4 decreased rarely no n/a possibly Dentine HAP no yes no no milk teeth 5-10 decreased rarely no n/a possibly Cementum HAP no no no no milk teeth 0.14 decreased rarely no n/a possibly Bone HAP no yes no cortical bone 10-20 decreased possibly possibly n/a possibly Tusk, antler HAP no yes no densest 10-20 decreased possibly possibly n/a possibly Gar fish scales HAP no no unkn only gar 2-54,5 decreased rarely no n/a possibly Molluscs cct, argt no unkn yes large valved6 5-10s may increase likely possibly n/a interference Ratite egg shells cct no theor unkn unkn 5-10s may increase likely possibly n/a interference Coral, echinoderms argt no theor yes unkn 5-10s may increase likely possibly n/a interference Foraminifera, ostracodes cct, argt no unkn unkn unkn 10-205 may increase likely possibly n/a interference Travertine, speleothem cct, argt no yes n/a densest 50-10078 may increase likely possibly n/a interference Calcrete, caliche, stromatolites cct no unkn n/a densest 50-10078 may increase likely possibly yes, ifclasts C03also interference Authigenic cement cct, argt no unkn n/a densest 100 mg4 may increase likely possibly n/a interference Phytoliths, diatoms, radiolarians qtz no unkn unkn unkn 5-105or0.14'5 may increase possibly possibly n/a reduced intens Fault gouge, mylonite qtz, fspar yes yes n/a qtz or fspar separates 50-1007'8 may increase possibly possibly n/a reduced intens Ash/tuffs qtz yes theor n/a thickest units 50-10078 may increase likely possibly yes reduced intens Flint/chert (burnt) qtz yes yes n/a avoid patina 5-108 may increase possibly possibly yes reduced intens te C Z g tč > te t- > > o r. > 7: G r. > Hearth sand qtz yes unkn n/a closest to hearth 50-1007'8 may increase possibly possibly yes reduced intens Silicrete, laterite qtz yes unkn n/a qtz separates 50-10078 may increase likely possibly yes, ifclasts qtzalso reduced intens Beach, fluvial sediment, loess qtz, flint, chert yes unkn n/a qtz separates 50-1007'8 may increase possibly possibly yes reduced intens Authigenic cement qtz no unkn n/a densest 0.14 may increase likely possibly n/a reduced intens Dolomite (1°) dmt no unkn n/a densest 50-1007'8 may increase likely possibly n/a unkn Dolomite (2°) dmt no unkn n/a dmt separates 0.14 may increase likely possibly n/a unkn Gypsum, gypcrete gyp no unkn n/a gyp separates 50-1007'8 may increase likely possibly n/a unkn Anhydrite anhy no unkn n/a densest 50-1007'8 may increase likely possibly n/a unkn Halite hal no unkn n/a densest 50-1007'8 may increase likely possibly n/a unkn breviatiot 1° is: primary 2° HAP = hydroxy apatite qtz cct calcite argt dmt dolomite gyp anhy anhydrite hal co, - carbonate unkn intens intensity theor secondary quartz aragonite gypsum halite unknown theoretically ' Sizes assume little or no diagenesis is present. For diagenetically altered samples, larger samples are needed. ' For isochron analysis, the sample size must be increased by a factor of 5-8. ' This uses a special ramped irradiation technique involves reirradiating some aliquots, but takes up to 2 years to complete. '' For species that have not been tested for ESR applicability, another 100-200 g is necessary. ' Smaller species may require special techniques or mixing multiple individuals into one subsample. Large sample sizes ensure sufficient pristine mineral for analysis after mineral separation andforXRD or petrographic analysis to check for recrystallization. 1 For samples from new study sites or sample types not yet tested for ESR applicability, another 100-200 g may be necessary. IX O H V C Z te v. C Z > z o te Z C H tx Z < C Z te Z H BONNIE A. B. BLACKwELL Sedimentary Unit or Site1 Sediment Grains (Clasts) 1o Dosing Unit(s)4 Thickness (cm) Whole (Bulk) Sediment Samples Samples of Clasts > 0.5 cm in Diameter6 Fig. Character1 e.g. Fig. Type1 Mineral Compositions2 Grain Size Range3 Mass5 (g) from 1o Dosing Unit(s)4 from 2o Dosing Units4 “Smooth”, thickly bedded sites 4c7 4b7 4d7 4d7 4c8 4b8 4d8 4d8 Thick smooth Homogeneous Uniform > 65 5-10 4-6 orthogonally oriented none 1-3 for gravel-sized matrix only 5a7 5b7 5a7 5b7 5a8 5b8 5a8 5b8 “Smooth”, thinly bedded sites Thin smooth Homogeneous Uniform < 65 5-10 4-6 orthogonally oriented 3-5 for each unit ? 30 cm from dating sample 1-3 for gravel-sized matrix only “Lumpy”, thickly bedded sites Thick lumpy 1 Homogeneous Non-uniform > 65 100-1000 4-6 orthogonally oriented none 1-3 per unit “Lumpy”, thinly bedded sites Thin lumpy 1 Homogeneous Non-uniform < 65 100-1000 4-6 orthogonally oriented 3-5 for each unit ? 30 cm from dating sample 1-3 per unit “Lumpy”, thickly bedded sites Thick lumpy 2 Inhomogeneous Uniform > 65 50-100 4-6 orthogonally oriented none 1-3 for gravel-sized matrix only “Lumpy”, thinly bedded sites Thin lumpy 2 Inhomogeneous Uniform < 65 50-100 4-6 orthogonally oriented 3-5 for each unit ? 30 cm from dating sample 1-3 for gravel-sized matrix only “Lumpy”, thickly bedded sites Thick lumpy 3 Inhomogeneous Non-uniform > 65 500-1000 4-6 orthogonally oriented none 1-3 for each lump mineralogy per unit “Lumpy”, thinly bedded sites Thin lumpy 3 Inhomogeneous Non-uniform < 65 500-1000 4-6 orthogonally oriented 3-5 for each unit ? 30 cm from dating sample 1-3 for each lump mineralogy per unit table 2. Sampling for Associated Sediment. 1 Sampling strategy and site character defnition is governed by the most inhomogenous unit present. if one “lumpy 3” bed occurs within 35 cm of the sample, the whole sedimentary package is treated as a lumpy 3 site. 2 mineral compositions in the units within 35 cm of the dating sample: homogeneous = all a single mineral, e.g., all calcite or all quartz inhomogenous = mixed sediment with several mineral or rock fragment types, e.g., mixed limestone and bone, till with quartz sand and gravel-sized granite clasts 3 Clast (grain) sizes in the units within 35 cm of the dating sample: Uniform = all one or two ß size classes, e.g., all medium-coarse sand or all silt-fne sand Non-uniform = several or a range of ß size classes, e.g., diamicton, breccia, most fossiliferous units, till 4 dosing units are sedimentary units within the 30 cm ? sphere of infuence (figures 4, 5): 1o (primary) dosing unit(s) = the one or two unit(s) touching the dating sample that contribute both ß and ? dose to the external dose rate afecting the sample. 2o (secondary) dosing units = all units ? 35 cm from the dating sample that contribute only ? dose to the external dose rate afecting the sample. 5 assuming that sediment matrix is sand-sized or smaller; larger matrix grain size requires larger sample mass. 6 assuming that the clasts are collected separately from the matrix. 7 assuming that grains of only one mineral constitute all the components in the sedimentary unit(s). 8 assuming that grains of several diferent minerals occur in the sedimentary unit(s) 132 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE (ESR) DATING IN KARST ENVIRONMENTS fig. 4: factors afecting the efective radiation dose feld around dating samples. Radiation can reach the dating sample from radioactive decay occurring within the sphere of infuence for the particular radiation type: a. ß particles deliver to a sample a signifcant, but variable, component in the total radiation dose, both externally and internally. Since the penetration range for a ß particle averages 1-2 mm, comparable to the sample thicknesses, dose calculations must consider ß attenuation within the sample. Te sphere of infuence for the contributions from ß radiation will usually not include more than two or three sedimentary units. b. Since ? irradiation can penetrate ~ 30 cm, the sphere of infuence for the contributions from ? radiation can include several sedimentary units, which may produce very diferent dose rates. c. in “smooth” sites with homogeneous sediment, the dose rate calculation is trivial. d. in “lumpy” sites, diferent minerals or clasts within the sediment, which may contain diferent concentrations of radioactive elements, can contribute dose at very diferent rates. in all situations, the dext(t) calculation must volumetrically average the dose rate from each source relative to its importance and location within the sphere of infuence each stratigraphic unit or sediment type. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 133 BONNIE A. B. BLACKwELL fig. 5: Collecting protocols for associated sediment samples for ESR dating. a. Tickly bedded homogeneous units (“Tick smooth” units, table 2): Assuming that the dating sample lies at least 35 cm from the nearest sedimentary unit boundary, sediment should be collected from four to six of the six orthogonal positions. in pictured example, the associated sediments were collected from the six orthogonal positions that coincide with the site grid plan. b. Tinly bedded or inhomogeneous units (“Tin smooth” units, table 2): Te sample for dating (1) sits within Units 4 and 5 (2, 3). in this circumstance, separate samples need to be collected from the two surrounding units. when sampling the surrounding sedimentary units, three to fve sediment samples should be collected from each unit, distributing the samples throughout the unit as it falls within the ? sphere of infuence. ideally for each unit, a few should come from along the cut face, one from behind, and one from in front of the cut face in order to sample a somewhat even distribution for each bed. ESR ANALYSIS Calculating an ESR age requires considering some 30 diferent parameters, which afect the accumulated dose, the internal and external dose rates. Although improved spectrometers and ancillary equipment have sped the process and improved precision somewhat, the basic ESR dating protocols were established in the 1980’s. Standard analytical protocols for all mineralogies require powdered samples. Although some ESR labs have developed “nondestructive” analyses for tooth enamel (e.g., Robertson & Grün, 2000; Miyake et al., 2000), even these cause some sample degradation. DETERMINING THE ACCUMULATED DOSE, A? For each sample, the accumulated dose, A?, is determined using the additive dose method (Figure 6a). Tis requires about 0.2-0.5 g of pristine prepared mineral sample (Table 1) in order to provide 10-15 aliquots of powdered, homogenized sample. Using fewer than 10 measurements causes signifcantly lower precision. Except for one, each aliquot is irradiated to a diferent precisely known arti-fcial radiation dose, usually from a 60Co ? source. Te added doses used usually range from 0.1-10 Grays for the lowest added dose to 1-40 kGy for highest, depending on the sample’s A?. Older samples, those with higher A?’s, generally get higher doses. Te selection of added doses does afect the curve ftting statistics, and hence, the precision for A? for enamel (e.g., Lee et al., 1997), and presumably for other materials as well. In the ramping technique, only 3-4 aliquots are used, but one or two are used to calibrate the spectrometer with each set of measurements, and two or three are successively irradiated to ever higher added doses (Blackwell, 2001). Afer measuring the ESR signal heights for both the natural and irradiated aliquots, the added dose is plotted versus the signal intensity to produce a growth curve (Figure 6a). Usually, the points are weighted inversely with intensity (peak height). In some materials, however, signal subtraction is necessary to isolate the dating signal from the interference to measure an accurate peak 134 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE (ESR) DATING IN KARST ENVIRONMENTS fig. 6. determining the accumulated dose, A?. Te additive dose method is used to calculate the accumulated (or ?-equivalent) dose, A?: a. Under artifcial irradiation during analysis, the hAP signal saturates at its maximum intensity, imax. Plotting the signal intensity versus the added radiation dose produces a growth curve. Te x-intercept for this curve gives A?. Tis bovid tooth from treugol’naya Cave, Russia, has a substantial accumulated dose, as expected for a middle Pleistocene site dating to OiS 11 (Blackwell et al., 2005a). b. for signals sufering interference, signal subtraction is used to remove the interference: Curve 1. A pure Al signal is unafected by interference signals. Curve 2. An organic radical signal, C, interferes with the Al signal. Curve 3. Unidentifed interference signals afect the Al signal. Curve 4. Te Al and C signal in a natural archaeological sample. Curve 5. Te same sample as Curve 4 heated for 10 minutes at 320oC to zero the Al signal. Curve 6. when Curve 5 is subtracted from Curve 4, the resulting signal shows the hyperfne splitting typical for the Al signal (see inset; modifed from Blackwell, 2001). height (Figure 6b). Despite controversies over measurement protocols, derivative spectra actually provide better resolution (Lyons & Tan, 2000). Most evidence also suggests that deconvolution is not necessary for many dating peaks (e.g., Skinner et al., 2001a). Te accumulated dose, A?, required to produce the observed natural ESR signal intensity equals the x-intercept for the growth curve. within some materials, such as travertine, calcrete, and caliche, crystals may vary greatly in their A?. If some regions are at or near saturation, while others are younger, ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 135 BONNIE A. B. BLACKwELL and hence not saturated, age underestimation may also occur, because the dose response is nonlinear near saturation (Figure 1b). Tis is not a problem for tooth enamel where linear behaviour persists to large doses (Brennan, 2000). Generally, A? can be measured with 0.8 to 5% precision depending on the spectrometer’s calibration (Nagy, 2000), the radiation source calibration (wieser et al., 2005), the sample’s age and diagenetic state (e.g., Blackwell et al., 2005a). DETERMINING THE INTERNAL DOSE RATE, Dint(T) To calculate the internal dose rate, Dint(t), the radiation sources (all U, T, K, etc.) within the sample are measured (Figure 1d), usually using neutron activation analysis (NAA) or any geochemical technique able to measure elemental concentrations at the ppm-ppb range. Ten, Dint(t) is derived from theoretical calculations. For samples containing U or T, those calculations must also consider the increased radioactivity due to ingrowth of the U or T daughter isotopes (Figure 7a) over time using an iterative procedure. Dint(t) calculations also consider radiation attenuation by water within the sample, ? and ß dose attenuation due to mineral density, and radon (Rn) loss for U- or T-rich samples (Figure 7b; e.g., Brennan et al., 2000). In samples, such as tooth enamel, bone, and fsh scales, where the internal dose rate derives solely from U absorbed during its burial history, the calculated ESR age must account for U uptake: Either the sample must be dated by U-series or U/Pb analysis, which allows a unique uptake model to be selected, or a U uptake model must be assumed. without calibrating dates, four models are commonly used (Figures 7c, 7d): early uptake (eu) assumes that the sample absorbed all its U soon afer burial, providing the youngest age given the accumulated dose, A?, and external dose rate, Dext(t). Linear uptake (Lu) assumes that the sample absorbs U at a constant rate throughout its burial history, giving a median age. Recent uptake (Ru) assumes U uptake very late in the sample’s burial history, which reduces its internally generated dose, Aint, to a minor contribution compared to A?. Tis gives the maximum possible age. Coupled uptake (Cu) assumes that the enamel, dentine, cementum, and any attached bone in teeth absorb U by diferent models. Ofen, it assumes LU for the enamel and EU for the dentine, cementum, and any attached bone, yielding ages somewhat younger than strict LU, but older than strict EU, models. Other models have also been suggested (e.g., Ikeya et al., 1997). CU only applies to materials like teeth where two diferent phases absorb U at diferent rates. In teeth, LU or CU ages ofen agree most closely with ages determined by other means for samples between than 80 ka and 500 ka, but, within a site, the uptake model can vary, since it depends strongly on microenvironmental conditions (e.g., Blackwell et al., 2001b). “For fossils and other materials that uptake U afer deposition, TIMS or laser-ablation 230T/234U analyses give coupled ESR-230T/234U calculations, which can constrain the U uptake history, as neither method can do independently (e.g., Eggins et al., 2003) For some older samples, it is still possible to use 230T/234U, providing the uptake has occured recently enough that the 230T/234U ratios are not indistinguishable from secular equilibrium values. U/Pb can date some uraniferous samples older than 1-2 Ma, but it has not yet been applied to delineate an ESR uptake model. U leaching or secondary U uptake may also present problems for some samples, and hence, requiring complex models (Figure 7c; Blackwell et al., 2005b; Hofman & Mangini, 2003). Precisions for Dint(t) depend strongly on the precision for U concentration measurement. Delayed neutron counting (DNC) neutron activation analysis (NAA) can routinely provide precisions and detection limits as low as ± 0.02 ppm, whereas instrumental NAA averages ± 0.2 ppm for precision and ± 1 ppm for detection limits, which makes dating young samples impossible. Any other technique able to measure the U at or below the ppb concentration level with better than ± 0.02 ppm precision provides sufcient discrimination to yield reliable ESR ages. DETERMINING THE EXTERNAL DOSE RATE, DEXT(T) Te external dose rate, Dext(t), strongly afects the calculated ESR ages (Figure 8a), especially for samples with low internal dose rates, Dint(t), as is common for teeth from caves. Teeth from open-air sites tend to have larger internal dose rates, but the external dose rates, also can be more variable over the long term. Both types of sites need to be examined carefully to understand all the dynamic processes that afect the external dose rates. To derive the total external dose rate, Dext, ?(t), four methods can be used: 1. TL dosimeters placed in the site to measure the current external dose rate, Dext, ?(t0) from sedimentary ? and cosmic sources over 0.5-2.0 years. 2. ? spectrometers measure the current dose rate, Dext, ?(t0) from sedimentary ? and cosmic sources over 0.5-2 hours. 3. Bulk geochemical analysis, ofen by NAA, using powdered sediment collected in conjunction with the sample measures the U, T, K, and other signifcant radioisotope concentrations in any layers which may have 136 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE (ESR) DATING IN KARST ENVIRONMENTS contributed to the sample’s Dext, ?(t) (Figures 4, 5). Te radioisotopic concentrations are used to mathematically calculate the current dose rates, Dext, ?(t0) and Dext, ß(t0) which include corrections for ? and ß dose attenuation due to mineral density, and backscattering. Such Dext, ?(t) calculations also require a measurement for, or assumptions about, Dcos(t), the cosmic dose rate (Figures 8b, 8c) for samples buried less than 10 m and also the average sedimentary water concentration to correct for radiation attenuation by sedimentary water (Figure 8d). In sites with thinly layered deposits or inhomogeneous sediment, Dext, ?(t) calculations ideally should consider each unit or sediment component individually by determining volumetrically averaged dose contributions (Figure 4b). 4. An isochron age for a large sample may obviate the need for a Dext, ?(t) c_alculation, because it gives both the sample age, t1, and Dext, ?(t) the time-averaged external dose rate, simultaneously (Figure 9). For adjacent U-rich or T-rich layers or sediment components, the measurement or calculation is corrected for possible U uptake, U daughter isotope ingrowth, and potential Rn loss (e.g. Figure 7; Blackwell & Blickstein, 2000). Assuming that Dext(t) has remained constant throughout the burial history, as many early studies did, can be naive. Changing water or radioactive element concentrations in the sediment (Figure 8d; e.g., Olley et al., 1997), increasing burial depth (Figure 8b), or variable Dcos(t), among others, can all afect the Dext, ?(t) experienced by the sample, requiring that Dext, ß(t0) and particularly Dext, ?(t0) be corrected for any such signifcant variations. At sites where sedimentary water concentration variations can be signifcant, or where sediment accumulation or defation can alter the depth of sediment cover, these considerations become signifcant, but not insurmountable. In using geochemical analysis (e.g., NAA) at sites with very inhomogeneous sediment units (“lumpy” sites), the inhomogeneity in the dose feld (Guibert et al., 1998) requires volumetric analysis in which the contribution from each component (Figure 1d, 8d) depends on its abundance in order to calculate the actual contribution to Dext, ?(t) from diferent components or layers within the ß and ? “spheres of infuence”. Tat still, however, does not consider the potential changes in Dext, ?(t) due changes in radioisotopic concentrations within the sedimentary components. In lumpy sites, sedimentary components which may be able to absorb U (e.g., peat, teeth, bones, mollusc shells) can constitute a signifcant sedimentary fraction. If they can absorb U, Dext, ?(t) will probably have changed with time, because, 1. Components such as teeth and bone only absorb U, not all its daughters which ingrow later (Figure 7a). 2. If the uptake occurred early in the sediment’s history, its efect will be greater than if it occurred recently. Tis requires that U uptake into the sediment be modelled analogously to that into teeth (see Dint(t) models above; Figure 7c). 3. U or other soluble daughters may have been leached, or Rn may have difused (Figure 7b), from these components, requiring modelling to assess the efect on Dext, ?(t) (e.g., Pike & Hedges, 2001; Figure 7c). 4. More than one discrete uptake or loss event may have afected these components (Figure 7c). Tese sedimentary processes can produce signifcant diferences in the calculated Dext, ?(t) and ages. Terefore, the isochron method is preferred whenever possible, because the sample acts as its own dosimeter, theoretically compensating for inaccuracies due any change in Dext, ?(t). Precision in ESR dating depends on the method used to measure Dext, ?(t) and the relative radioactive element concentrations. For ? and TL dosimetry, precision tends to average 3-10%, whereas for sedimentary analysis, uncertainties normally range from 5 to 15%. Precision for _ Dext, ?(t) in isochron analysis wil_l exceed that associated with the isochron age, because Dext, ?(t) is derived from the age, rather than vice versa. Te diferent measurement protocols do ofen yield somewhat diferent estimates for Dext, ?(t) (Blackwell et al., 2000). THE ISOCHRON METHOD Isochrons have been applied mainly to teeth (Figure 9), but also fault gouge minerals and stalagmites. with the isochron method, a sample that can yield at least fve subsamples is analyzed by standard ESR analysis. If the accumulated doses, _A?,i, plotted against the time averaged internal dose rate, Dint, i(t) for each subsample, i, give a straight line, its slope equals the sample’s age, t1, while the y-intercept yields the accumulated dose due to external sources, Aext, from which can be derived the time-aver-_ aged external dose rate, Dext, ?(t) (Figure 9a). In teeth, the method gives a family of lines which con-_ verge on Aext, but whose ages and Dext, ?(t) e_ach depend upon the U uptake model used to calculate Dint, i(t) (Figures 9b, 9c). Tests have shown that, if the isochron has a high R2 for the regression, the slope gives an age consistent with other dating methods (Blackwell et al., 2002a). Te isochron method is limited to samples whose internal dose rate, Dint(t), constitutes a signifcant fraction of D?(t), efectively requiring the sample to contain ? 2 ppm U. If samples have lost U or gained U in more than one event, however, isochron analyses may give erroneous _ ages and/or Dext, ?(t) values (Figure 9d; Blackwell et al., 2001a). Precisions for isochron ages and Aext can range ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 137 BONNIE A. B. BLACKwELL fig. 7: factors afecting the internal dose rate, dint(t). for bones, teeth, molluscs, and other materials containing or capable of absorbing U, U uptake must be measured or modelled. for minerals or fossils capable of losing U or other U daughter products by leaching or degassing, these must also be modelled or measured: a. dint(t) increases as the sample ages simply from ingrowth of the U daughter isotopes. Tis plot assumed an early uptake model U absorption of 10 ppm, with no initial T or Pa. b. Radon (Rn) gas, produced when U decays, can escape from samples during diagenesis and fossilization, causing dint(t) to decrease, and therefore, afecting the accuracy in the calculated ages. Assuming 0% Rn loss will not contribute signifcant errors to age calculation for most samples, except those with very high U concentrations. in this mammoth molar from a pond deposit in hungary, the uptake model signifcantly afects the age calculation, because the dentine contains relatively high U concentrations, producing signifcant diferences in the various calculated model ages. c. A combined model for U uptake and leaching: Te fossil absorbs all its U immediately afer death in the early uptake (EU) model, but it absorbs almost no U until just before attaining its maximum U concentration in the recent uptake (RU) model. Under linear uptake, the fossil absorbs U continuously and constantly throughout the uptake time, and linear leaching assumes an analogous continuous, constant U loss through the leaching period. Under early leaching (El), the fossil loses U in a geological instant some time before the fossil is discovered, whereas under recent leaching, the loss occurs just before discovery. d. U uptake in teeth from hoxne, England: Recent uptake models are applicable in some situations. more complex models can be devised by combining several uptake and leaching events (adapted from Blackwell, 2001). 138 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE (ESR) DATING IN KARST ENVIRONMENTS fig. 8: Te efect on ESR ages from the external dose rate, dext(t). dext(t) is a function of many variables, including the water in the sediment and the cosmic dose impacting the sample: a. miscalculated dext(t)’s can dramatically afect the calculated ages, especially for the RU ages. As the external dose rate increases, all the model ages decrease exponentially approaching 18 ka at 2.0 mGy/y. A 200 µGy/y (40%) decrease in the measured dext(t) would reduce the calculated ages by approximately 13-15 ky (~25%), whereas a 200 µGy/y (40%) decrease would introduce a 26-32 ky (~50%) increase in the calculated ages. Tese are insignifcant compared to the 2 ? uncertainties in the age calculation (Blackwell et al., unpublished data). b. As sediment depth increases above a sample, the cosmic dose contributes less to the total external dose rate. for samples covered by 10 m of sediment, the cosmic dose is negligible. c. At higher altitudes and higher latitudes, the cosmic dose increases. d. Sedimentary water attenuates the external dose reaching the tooth. As the sedimentary water concentration increases, the external dose rate, dext(t), decreases, but the calculated ESR age increases under all uptake models. Generally, changing the sedimentary water concentration by ±5-10 wt% does not signifcantly afect the calculated ages, especially for samples where dext(t) represents a small percentage of the total dose rate, d?(t), as here. if, however, the sedimentary water concentration changes by > ±10 wt%, the model ages will exceed the reported values by more than the 2 ? uncertainty in many samples, especially under the RU model, as seen here. Using the water concentration suggested by the dext(t) from the isochron analysis does not produce a signifcant change (afer Blackwell et al., 2005a). ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 139 BONNIE A. B. BLACKwELL fig. 9. ESR isochrons. a. A_ theoretical plot: when the total accumulated dose, A?, i , for each subsample, i, is plotted versus the time-averaged internal dose rate, dint, i (t), the slope of the line gives the sample’s age, t, while the y-intercept represents the external accumulated dose, Aext. b. A plot for a tooth from Bau de l’Aubesier, Provence: in practice, each uranium uptake model produces a line, which all converge on Aext. isochron analysis can yield ages with uncertainties as low as 4%. c. An isochron for a tooth from tufa deposit associated with a thermal spring and lake at longola, Zambia. d. if a sample, such as this tooth, has experienced U leaching or a second uptake event, the isochron’s intercept ofen becomes negative. in this example, the secondary uptake event must have occurred recently, because the isochron age agrees well with 230T/234U age on adjacent stalagmitic horizons. _ dint, i (t), and Aext all depend on the U uptake model selected afer the frst iteration of this technique (adapted from Blackwell et al., 2002a). 140 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE (ESR) DATING IN KARST ENVIRONMENTS as low as 3-4%, but normally tend to be less precise than standard ESR analyses, while minimum uncertainties for _ Dext, ?(t) tend to be ~ 5-6%. Because the isochron method averages Dext, ?(t) over the entire burial history, isochron analysis automatically corrects for any changes in Dext, ?(t) which may have occurred. By greatly reducing the need to measure Dext, ?(t) in situ or to assume that it has remained constant, it can date samples from environments where Dext, ?(t) are likely to have changed in response to complex sedimentologi-cal changes, such as open-air environments. Isochrons can also date samples from sites that have been destroyed or are otherwise inaccessible, especially samples in museum collections. If an independent method (e.g., TL or ? dosimetry) can be used to measure Dext, ?(t), and if Dext, ?(t) can be shown to have been constant throughout time at the site by geological studies or an independent date, the isochron method can instead determine the U uptake history. Since the isochron calculation gives Aext, which must equal the product of the age, t1, with Dext, ?(t) the isochron’s slope that matches this age represents the “correct” isochron and uptake model for the sample. ESR MICROSCOPY AND OTHER NEw TECHNIqUES In ESR microscopy, an ESR spectrometer has been modi-fed to scan across a solid mineral surface to measure the spin concentrations for a preset signal. with specialized analytical programs, 2D, 3D, and 4D ESR imaging is now possible, some of which are combined with other systems such as electrically stimulated luminescence (ESL), NMR and CT (e.g., Miki et al., 1996; Mizuta et al., 2002). ESR microscopy is still being explored to understand its full potential, but it shows great promise in studying fossil diagenesis, mapping crystal growth and defects, among other applications. Currently, it works best for materials with very strong ESR signals, such as tooth enamel (e.g., Oka et al., 1997), bone (Schauer et al., 1996), coral, gypsum, mollusc shells, aragonite, and barite. Portable ESR dosimeters and spectrometers are used to assess nuclear radiation accidents on site (e.g., Oka et al., 1996). Geoscientists can also use them in the feld. In the feld, such technology would help to recognize reworked fossils, to aid in selecting the best samples for dating, and to assess the efect of site inhomogeneity on the samples. Eventually, such technology may even allow preliminary age estimates while still in the feld. APPLICATIONS AND DATABLE MATERIALS IN KARST SETTINGS within karst settings, ESR can date materials that might provide valuable insight into a cave’s or a karst system’s history. Dating teeth, molluscs, ratite egg shells, authi-genic carbonates or salts can delineate depositional histories and rates. Dates on authigenic cements may date diagenetic events or hydrological changes. Dating fossils, such as molluscs, teeth, and molluscs dates changes in biological diversity and groundwater chemistry. Dating burnt fints or hearth sands from archaeological sites or fossils from karst deposits can indicate the age for associated geomorphic surfaces and hint at paleoclimatic histories. Typical karst process, however, can cause all fossils, especially loose teeth, ratite egg shells, and molluscs, to be reworked (Figure 10). MOLLUSCS, RATITE EGGS SHELLS, OSTRACODES, AND OTHER CARBONATE FOSSILS In caves, open-air spring deposits, and karst fssure flls, dating mollusc shells found in the sediment (Table 2) can provide diverse information for quaternary karst studies. Mollusc shells, however, act as open systems for U, although the moderate discordance between measured 230T/234U and 231Pa/235U ratios suggests that most U uptake accompanies sedimentation. Aragonitic mollusc shells normally show fve ESR peaks (Figure 11), but calcitic molluscs have more complex spectra. For the calcitic peaks at g = 2.0018, 2.0007, and 1.9976, trap density is related to Mg/Ca ratios, which can change with diagenesis, secondary mineralization, and fossilization, making them unsuitable for dating some species. Generally, either the peaks at g = 2.0012 and 2.0007 in calcitic shells and the peak at g = 2.0007 in aragonitic shells are the most reliable, but that must be tested for each species individually, because complex peaks do occur and peaks other than that at g = 2.0007 may be light sensitive (Bartoll et al., 2000). Secondary mineralization can cause interference that afects A? measurement and age calculation. Signal lifetimes vary signifcantly depending on the peak and species (e.g., Blackwell, 1995, Table 2). Some species show infection points in their growth curves, making it difcult to select an appropriate set of added doses for measuring A? (e.g., Shih et al., 2002). Schellmann and Radtke (2001) advocated using a plateau technique with 40-60 irradiation steps to maximize accuracy in the growth curves. Petrographic or geochemical analysis should accompany any ESR date to avoid remineralized and recrystallized samples. Contamination from Mn peaks ofen requires ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 141 BONNIE A. B. BLACKwELL fig. 10: tests to check for reworked fossils. for teeth from Swartkrans, South Africa: a. Te accumulated dose (A?) histogram clearly reveals at least three diferent populations of teeth. b. Te enamel U concentration histogram shows at least two populations. c. Plotting A? vs. enamel U concentration reveals four distinct populations. d. Plotting A? vs. dentinal U concentration shows three diferent populations well separated from each other. Such plots delineate populations of teeth that have experienced diferent environmental conditions, one indication for reworking among samples from the same units (afer Blackwell, 1994). overmodulation to discriminate the dating peaks. Due to U uptake, modelling is required for samples that cannot be analyzed by coupled ESR-230T/234U dating. In some fresh and hypersaline systems, the (234U/238U)o ratio may also need to be measured or modelled. For each species and signal, the ß efciency factor, ?ß, must be measured. Long-term signal fading may also need to be considered, depending on the peak and its thermal stability. Specimens found in life position give the most reliable results, although that does not guarantee that reworking has not occurred. Larger species are preferred so that each subsample represents a single individual (Table 1), but several shells can be combined from a smaller species, assuming that none have been reworked. Fragmentary samples still need to be speciated. Since species efects do occur, submitting two or three diferent species from each unit can increase dating precision and accuracy. Good agreement between ESR, TL, 14C, and AAR (amino acid racemization) ages has occurred in studies with hendersonia and Allogona using g = 2.0007, in lym-naea baltica and Cerastoderma glaucum using g = 2.0012. Termal stabilities in monauha caucaicala signifcantly exceeded those in marine molluscs. For untested species, ~ 100 g of pristine shell are needed to perform the necessary signal stability and calibration tests (Balckwell, 2001). Applications in karst systems have been rare, but terrestrial and freshwater molluscs do give reasonable ESR ages. For example, Molod’kov (2001) reported ages of 393 ± 27 ka for Layer 5b, and 583 ± 25 ka for Layer 7a for terrestrial molluscs preserved in the Lower Paleolithic site at Treugol'naya Cave, Russia. 142 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE (ESR) DATING IN KARST ENVIRONMENTS In ratite egg shells, two signals with good sensitivity exist. Although attempts have been made to date extinct birds, recent stability tests showed a very short signal lifetime, which would severely limit their application for sites older than 30 ka (Skinner et al., unpublished data). AUTHIGENIC CARBONATES, SPELEOTHEM, TRAVERTINE, CALCRETE, CALICHE Speleothem and travertine from springs, as well as in swamps and shallow hypersaline lakes, contains calcite or aragonite with several strong signals. Unfortunately, many travertines and some speleothems also contain high organic concentrations that can add interference peaks. Nonetheless, ESR dating of speleothem, travertine, and other authigenic carbonates allow detailed paleoenviron-mental determinations, and may document prehistoric human activities. How post-sedimentary processes afect the ESR signals in authigenic carbonates (Blackwell, 1995, Table 2) is still not well understood. Although most travertine spectra (Figure 12) resemble those for speleothems, which have been extensively studied, other peaks do occur. Te humic acid signal at g = 2.0040 does not appear accurate for dating. In Mn-rich samples, the peak at g = 2.0022 yielded reliable ages, but needs testing for annealing behaviour and replicability before general application. Te most reliably measured peak occurs at g = 2.0007, while peaks other than that at g = 2.0036 may show light sensitivity (Bartoll et al., 2000). Although many authigenic carbonates lack the peak at g = 2.0007, carefully sampling densely crystallized cal-cite can increase the success rate. Reliable ages have been found for some travertines, when compared against 14C or U series ages. For some pisolites, calcrete, and caliche, contamination causes complex interference signals that afect accuracy, but preannealing samples before analysis may improve the results (Skinner, 2000). Because most authigenic carbonates can experience remineralization, secondary mineralization or cementation, petrographic, SEM, XRD, or similar analyses should complement the ESR dating analysis to ensure viable geological conclusions. Otherwise, sample preparation is fast, requiring only powdering and a dilute acid leach to remove any transitory peaks induced by the grinding. Relatively few ESR studies (e.g., whitehead et al., 2002) have systematically examined travertine or other authigenic carbonates afer problems with the applications were found in the 1990’s. Attempts to date the spring travertines from Vertésszőlős, Hungary, failed to reveal a datable signal without interference (Skinner et al., unpublished data). Modern signal subtraction and multiband studies might resolve some problems and improve the reliability for these applications (Kinoshita et al., 2004). HYDROXYAPATITE (HAP), VERTEBRATE FOSSILS AND CRUSTACEAN CHITIN ESR analysis can date hydroxyapatite (HAP), because a single radiation-sensitive ESR signal occurs at g = 2.0018 in fossil, but not modern enamel (Figure 1d; Tables 1, 2). Currently, most labs use placental mammal enamel, but marsupial and shark enamel also have datable signals (Blackwell et al., 2002b, 2004). Presumably, any vertebrate enamel should be datable, but this needs verifcation for each taxonomic order by extensive testing before general applicability can be assumed because tests with crocodile enamel showed Fe interference problems that hampered dating (Blackwell et al., unpublished data). Bones, dentine, some fsh scales, and crustacean chitin also show the same signal (Figure 13) which grows similarly to that in tooth enamel. Rink et al. (2003) used the signal in authi-genic apatite veins to date sequences in Tabun Cave, Israel, but non-organic apatites ofen lack radiation sensitive signals (Skinner et al., unpublished data). In tissues other than enamel, the signals do not fade, but their low sensitivity causes very low signal intensity unless the sample age approaches 0.8-1 Ma. Since diagenetic alteration in bone also complicates its use, bone dating has largely been abandoned in favour of enamel. Analyses for enam-eloid fsh scales (e.g., gar, Lepisosteus) have been developed, but need further testing. In addition to interference problems, other fsh scales do not appear to give suf-ciently large signals for accurate dates. In HAP, ESR dates must consider U uptake and ingrowth by U daughters, as well as possible Rn loss and U leaching (Figure 7). In HAP, the long ESR signal lifetime, ? ~ 1019 y (Skinner et al., 2000), guarantees its utility. In mammals, its radiation-sensitivity does not depend on species, but does depend on the crystallinity which is afected by the animal’s age and health (Skinner et al., 2001a). In deciduous teeth (i.e., “milk” teeth), poorly crystallized HAP causes analytical problems. Although signal saturation depends on the sample’s U concentration, saturation in enamel generally does not occur before the tooth is ~ 5 Ma. Teeth as old as 4.0 Ma have been dated successfully. Although some teeth as young as 8-10 ka have been dated, dosimetry experiments suggest that teeth with doses of ~ 0.05-0.1 Gray may be datable (wieser et al., 2005). Currently, few attempts have made to dates sites younger than ~ 25-30 ka (~ 2-5 Gray), because 14C dating is usually used instead. Te standard ESR method (i.e., not isochrons) for tooth enamel has now been tested extensively against other dating methods for sites in the age range 30-300 ka (Blackwell, 2001, Table 1), but for teeth > 300-400 ka, relatively few calibration tests have been attempted. Archaeological applications have been extensive. Despite calls for much more complex measurement protocols ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 143 BONNIE A. B. BLACKwELL fig. 11: ESR spectra in aragonitic mollusc shells. Tree signals commonly occur in aragonitic mollusc shells (adapted from Blackwell, 2001): a. Te signal at g = 2.0058 before and afer irradiation measured at room temperature. b. Te signal at g = 2.0036 measured at room temperature (293°K) and at 145°K. c. Te signal at g = 2.0007 before and afer irradiation measured at room temperature. (e.g., Grün, 2002; Vanhaelewyn et al., 2000), q band tests indicate that, although the peak is complex, it grows uniformly and can be accurately measured by a simple peak height measurement without deconvolution (Skinner et al., 2000). Human dosimetry experiments (Blackwell, 2001, Table 1) have hinted at possible problems with interference, temperature sensitivity, and signals induced by grinding and UV light exposure. Several researchers have suggested complex preparation techniques to com- pensate for these problems (e.g., Onori et al., 2000), but their efect on teeth older than 10 ka must be minimal or the ESR ages would not agree with those from other dating methods. while standard ESR can still be improved methodologically, such as by fully understanding U uptake, this does not hamper its application, especially in many caves, where the dental U concentrations were so low that all the model ages are statistically identical (Figure 8a; e.g., Skinner et al., 2005). For the isochron method in enamel, calibration tests have been completed against 230T/234U, 40Ar/39Ar, and standard ESR (e.g., Skinner et al., 2001b). Disagreements between standard ESR and isochrons imply changes in Dext(t) or secondary U remobilization (Blackwell et al., 2001a, 2001b). For enamel dating, molars and premolars from large herbivores make the best specimens, because both isochron and standard ESR analyses can be completed. Very small teeth are analyzed with the ramped dosing technique, but the enamel must be separated from the dentine manually. For small teeth, several teeth from the same jaw can be attempted for isochron analysis. ESR dating does not require that mammal teeth be fully identifed, but other vertebrate groups have not been tested sufciently to preclude taxonomic identifcation. Fragmentary teeth are fne, providing enough enamel and dentine remains for analysis (Table 1). For example, one mammoth molar plate provides enough enamel for an isochron. New non-destructive techniques using smaller teeth are being developed, but are not yet routine. For bones, dentine, ivory (mixed dentine and enamel), and antler, the method is more difcult to apply and has not been particularly successful. Teir low signal sensitivity causes, if nothing else, a much higher minimum age limit. For dentine, tests suggest that sensitivity problems can be overcome by using it to date teeth > 1 Ma (Blackwell et al., 2002c). Diagenetic minerals in dentine cause few problems, except further lowering sensitivity (Skinner et al., 2000). In bone, tusk, and antler, contaminants and secondary mineralization can also complicate the signal measurement. Since all these tissues can absorb signifcant U, uptake modelling becomes even more essential in determining accurate dates. Crustacean shell chitin shows a typical HAP signal, but the method needs development to determine if it might be applicable to brine shrimp or other chitinous species. In caves, the applications have been too numerous to detail them all, but open-air karst applications have been more limited (Blackwell, 2001, Table 1). Dating at human paleontological and archaeological sites has been the most common use (e.g., Falgueres, 2003), but non-hominid faunal applications (e.g., Godfrey-Smith et al., 2003) are becoming more common. ESR dates combined 144 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE (ESR) DATING IN KARST ENVIRONMENTS fig. 12: ESR spectra in tufa and travertine. in tufa and other slowly precipitated carbonates, the ESR spectra can vary dramatically, ofen due to interference signals from included organic matter, contaminant minerals, and trace elements (adapted from Blackwell, 2001). with faunal, palynological, and geomorphological data at Treugol’naya Cave, in the Russian Caucasus, have begun to describe an extensive OIS 11 sequence (Doronichev et al., 2004). Blackwell et al. (2001b) used ESR isochrons to assess U uptake and ages for the hominid site at Bau de l’Aubesier. At Divje babe I, Slovenia, a fute made from cave bear bone was found associated with Mousterian artefacts. Initially, Lau et al. (1997) showed the fute to be > 43 ka. Altogether, more than 40 subsamples were dated from 16 Ursus spelaeus (cave bear) teeth found in Layers 8 through 20 to build a detailed and precise chro-nostratigraphic sequence (Figure 14a) which allowed other sedimentological analyses to be tied to an absolute time sequence (e.g., Figure 14b; Turk et al., 2001). Te resulting paleoclimatic interpretations were correlated with other global climatic events (e.g., Figure 14c; Turk et al., 2002). HEATED SILICA: VOLCANIC ASH, IGNEOUS ROCKS, BAKED SEDIMENT, BURNT FLINT AND CHERT Cave and karst sediment may preserve volcanic ash, tek-tites, and baked sediment, but few ESR applications have been attempted. Heated chert and fint artefacts occur in archaeological sites associated with Late Pleistocene and Holocene karst. quartz and silica exhibit several radiation-sensitive ESR signals (Figure 15). Due to the Ti and Ge signals’ low sensitivity, fast saturation, and propensity for bleaching (e.g., woda et al., 2001), most studies use the OHC, E', or Al signals. Some samples do require signal subtraction fig. 13: Te ESR hydroxyapatite signal in lepisosteus platostomus (gar) scales. in these scales from the Sangamonian lake at hopwood farm, il, low signal intensity in the natural sample (lower) makes the signal difcult to discern, but artifcial irradiation reveals the distinctive hydroxyapatite signal at g = 2.0018, along with a carbon radical signal that partially interferes with the dating signal. to remove trace contaminant interference signals (Figure 6b). Because quartz does not absorb U over time, its age calculations do not require modelling for U uptake like tooth enamel. To provide meaningful dates, any preexisting geological signals, however, must have been zeroed completely during the depositional event (Figure 2b). In some fint, an unbleachable component may survive typical heating (Skinner, 2000). Signal lifetimes of ? ? 100 y were measured for the E' and Al signals, but heated fints show much longer lifetimes, suggesting that the signals’ kinetics may change on heating. A short-lived interference signal, E'1 , with ? = 40 y, can interfere with E' signal measurement in some heated quartz samples (Toyoda, 2004), complicating dating for volcanic rocks and impact craters. For burnt fint, chert, and quartz sand (Tables 1, 2), calibration tests against other methods and more basic studies are needed. Te precision for A? values from ESR compares well with those obtained from TL on the same materials. Flints and cherts as young as 10-20 ka may be datable, but the maximum dating limit, which depends on the fint type, has not yet been well established. Applications to dating burnt sand and volcanic ash are even less advanced, but theoretically feasible. Ulusoy (2003) and Beerten et al. (2003) have both been experimenting ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 145 BONNIE A. B. BLACKwELL A B figure 14: ESR dating at divje babe i, Slovenia. 146 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 – 2006 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE (ESR) DATING IN KARST ENVIRONMENTS C Temperature Cool Wann Layei a 0 232 ui« 240 .-"3 264 »a 273 -M 281 ° 2» 50 40 30 20 10 0 CongelifracB 10oun<:x<40tiBB (%) Condensation (and soil) moisture Lessmoisture More moisture 13-14 14-15 16a 16a I7a1 17 I7a2 17a2 17a3 17/18 18 1« in 19/20 19/20 hearth 20 21 22 23 j___t 70,6-91,7 ka 3 i m. . (-_, 82.4-119,8 In o 11' ¦... ¦» ¦ . i F' [ M i 2. '----^—' n .' -A '------^——' 105,1 - 124,1 la 2 SE 0 4 i 12 16 20 24 28 Etched clasts x > 40 mm fig. 14: ESR dating at divje babe i, Slovenia. Recently, a well dated sequence at divje babe i cave, Slovenia, was coupled with detailed sedimentological analyses to develop detailed paleoclimatic interpretations and correlations with global climatic episodes: A. Te 16 teeth dated by ESR and four bones dated by 14C show that the cave flled in episodically, with depositional hiati at approximately 420 and 590 cm below datum. B. Given the dates for the layers, aggregate analyses from the fne sediment fraction can be correlated with the global OiS curve (turk et al., 2001). C. Te ESR, aggregate, and other sedimentary analyses combine to indicate paleoclimatic variations for the area around divje babe i during the late Pleistocene (turk et al., 2002). with single crystal techniques for dating quartz. Tani et al. (1998) examined the thermal history for a fint artefact based on its ESR signals. STRAINED qUARTZ AND FELDSPAR, FAULT GOUGE, MYLONITE In many karst systems, caves develop along faults. ESR can date the most recent, and sometimes several earlier, fault movements (Figure 16), allowing complex tectonic histories to be unravelled. In Japan, the technique has been widely applied to numerous faults (Blackwell, 2001, Table 1), but few directly associated with caves. Tatumi et al. (2004) reported potentially datable signals in feldspar, while Mittani et al. (2004) tried using the [Pb-Pb]3+ center in amazonite. In dating gouge, strain zeroes the signals in the gouge minerals (Figure 3). Several grain sizes must be tested to ensure that the signals have been completely reset. Most researchers use the E', OHC, or Al signals in quartz (Figure 15) or occasionally feldspar, but the grains must be selected by hand afer heavy mineral separation and HF leaching to ensure that only gouge minerals with no secondary overgrowths are used. Lee and Schwarcz (2001) advocate using at least two signals to ensure accuracy. qUARTZ ZEROED BY LIGHT, BEACH SAND, LOESS, FLUVIAL SEDIMENT If a radiation-sensitive ESR signal found in quartz can be completely zeroed by exposure to strong light, as can ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 147 BONNIE A. B. BLACKwELL fig. 15: ESR signals in quartz. Several signals occur in quartz, fint, and fault gouge minerals (adapted from Blackwell, 2001): a. Te aluminum (Al) signal, ofen used for dating fault gouge, must be measured at 70°K. it is an (AlO4)0 defect. b. Te titanium (ti) signal, which has not been used ofen for dating arises from (tiO4 /h+)0, (tiO4 /li+)0, (tiO4 /Na+)0 defects. c. Because the germanium (Ge) signal is more easily bleached than most other signals in many quartz samples, it is used for dating quartz sediment. Tis complex signal arises from overlapping (GeO4 /li+)0 and (GeO4 /Na+)0 defects. d. Te E' signal at g = 2.0001 is easily measured at room temperature to date quartz, fint, and fault gouge. e. Te complex oxygen hole centre (OhC) signal and the P1 (peroxy) signal are also measured at room temperature. OhC has been used to date quartz, fint, and fault gouge. the Ge signal (Figure 2a), then its deposition in a shallow subaerial environment can be dated. As yet, it remains controversial whether any signal is completely zeroed during natural deposition (e.g., Toyoda et al., 2000; Voin-chet et al., 2003). If sediment does not bleach completely, then any ages become maximum ages. Since most applications attempted thus far have used dubious analytical techniques (e.g., Blackwell, 2001, ), deciding if the results are fortuitous or genuine is difcult. Although these tech- niques await several basic theoretical studies, the recent successes with TL and OSL using similar sediment suggest that the potential exists here for many applications. AUTHIGENIC qUARTZ: PHYTOLITHS, DIATOMS, CEMENT, LATERITE, AND SILCRETE Both diatoms and phytoliths theoretically should be datable by ESR. Having a suitable signal, phytoliths need further investigation. Inherently, diatoms should also 148 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE (ESR) DATING IN KARST ENVIRONMENTS fig. 16: fault gouge dating. in fault gouge from the Bear divide, San Gabriel fault, CA, the gouge records several periods of activity: a. At least three earthquakes occurred in this outcrop at 357 ± 19, 824 ± 70, and 1173 ± 130 ka. b. Plotting the ESR ages vs. grain size shows diferent plateaux in old and reactivated fault gouge. (afer lee & Schwarcz, 1994). have radiation sensitive signals similar to those in other quartz. In both, the ESR signals should be zero when the crystals form, thereby eliminating the problem of incomplete zeroing seen in other quartz applications. were one able to date laterite and silcrete, much geomorphic information might be discovered, but early attempts have not been systematically verifed. Diagenet-ic alteration and secondary cementation may complicate these applications, creating complex curves. Nonetheless, all these have potential that should be developed further. CLAY MINERALS Several clay minerals have viable ESR signals. Both kao-linite and montmorillanite have an OHC signal associ- ated with their silicate layers. In the latter, the stability, ? = 107 years at surface temperatures, suggests that its applicability for dating should include at least the Middle and Late quaternary. Montmorillanite also has a radiation-sensitive carbonate signal, but with even lower stability. Radionuclides in associated Fe-oxides cause the signals in kaolinite, which have been used to fn-gerprint and source the clays. Fukuchi (2001) has tried using the OHC signal in montmorillanite to date Japanese faults. Bensimon et al. (2000) examined signal stabilities in natural clay signals. All these methods still need much development before routine application will be possible. OTHER SALTS: DOLOMITE, GYPSUM, GYPCRETE, HALITE, SULPHATES Dating salts can provide detailed information about associated karst features. Since salts frequently experience diagenesis, remineralization, and cementation, they require petrographic or geochemical checks to ensure accurate ages. Several salts have strong ESR signals (Blackwell, 1995, Table 2). Strong radiation-sensitive signals in other carbonates, sulphates, and phosphates all show potential to be developed into viable techniques. Useful signals may also exist in rare salts with analogous geochemi-cal formulae, but few have been examined. Success may hinge on the salts’ purity, since the organic radicals, especially from humic acids, common in some subaerially precipitated salts tend to interfere with dating signals (e.g., Debuyst et al., 2000). As yet, ESR dating has been attempted only for gypsum, anhydrite, halite, monohydrocalcite, dolomite, and barite, but not with unqualifed success. Preliminary results on salt deposits indicate that signal intensities increase with sampling depth, but agreement with other dating methods has been poor. In gypsum, the g = 2.0082 signal gives the best results. Ulusoy (2004) studied gypsums from Turkey. Attempts to use gypcrete were hampered by the difculties in obtaining sufcient sample for adequate growth curves to determine the ß efciency factor, kß, which must be measured for each sample, due to diferences in the precipitation history. Kohno et al. (1996) measured an accumulated dose in a barite desert rose. Once the idiosyncrasies in sample preparation have been standardized, these applications should provide interesting details about karst systems. OTHER APPLICATIONS Other applications include using ESR imaging systems to explore mineral (e.g., Gotze & Plotze, 1997) and fossil growth and diagenesis (e.g., Tsukamoto & Heikoop, 1996). Omura & Ikeya (1995) used ESR microscopy to ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 149 BONNIE A. B. BLACKwELL map gypsum crystal growth. Similar techniques could theoretically be applied to other salts. In a rather simplistic approach, Yugo et al. (1998) proposed a model for paleowind patterns based on the provenance of aeolian quartz dust as determined by the ESR intensity. CONCLUSIONS In caves, abris, and karst fssures, ESR dating has been particularly efective at dating teeth. while rare in caves, dating with molluscs, and other fossils also are easily applicable. Other methods have and are being developed that may prove extremely useful in future, including dating gypsum, dolomite, quartz, and other minerals. In open-air karst settings, one must expect that changing sedimentary water concentrations, secondary leaching or addition of U or T in the sediment, and changing cosmic dose rates in response to burial will afect the external dose rates. Terefore, accurate dates must consider these phenomena carefully. while this complicates the age calculations, ESR can still provide accurate dates for many materials found associated with open-air karst environments, including teeth, egg shells, mollusc shells, burnt fint, fault gouge, and possibly for foraminifera, phytoliths, diatoms, and ostracodes. ACKNOwLEDGEMENTS Some examples cited herein were analyzed thanks to support from the National Science Foundation, the Leakey Foundation, Toyota Tapestry Foundation, RFK Science Research Institute, and williams College. Over the years, Barry Brennan, Bill Prestwich, Jack Rink, Bill Buhay, Rainer Grün, Martin Jonas, Michel Barabas, Darren Curnoe, Eddie Rhodes, Ed Haskell, Anotoly Molod’kov, Albrecht wieser, Ulrich Radtke, Galena Hütt, Neil whitehead, Motoji Ikeya, Glen Berger, Anne wintle, Martin Aitken, Gerd Hennig, John Dennison, Andrew Pike, Christophe Falgueres, Shin Toyoda, Mimi Divjak, Hee Kwon Lee, Daniel Richter, Hélene Valladas, Ruth Lyons, Naomi Porat, and especially Henry Schwarcz have provided valuable insights in discussions about ESR dating. Anne Skinner and Joel Blickstein provided many useful comments on this manuscript and assisted with its preparation. Te reviewers provided excellent suggestions to improve the work. REFERENCES Bartoll, J., Stößer, R., & Nofz, M., 2000: Generation and conversion of electronic defects in calcium carbonates by UV/Vis light. Applied Radiation & Isotopes, 52, 1099-1105. 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Yugo, O., Naruse, T., Ikeya, M., Kohno, H., & Toyoda, S., 1998: Origin and derived courses of eolian dust quartz deposited during Marine Isotope Stage 2 in east Asia suggested by ESR signal intensity. Global & Planetary Change, 18, 129-135. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 153 COBISS: 1.01 THE HISTORY OF POSTOJNSKA JAMA: THE 1748 JOSEPH ANTON NAGEL INSCRIPTIONS IN JAMA NEAR PREDJAMA AND POSTOJNSKA JAMA ZGODOVINA POSTOJNSKE JAME: NAGLOV NAPIS V JAMI PRI PREDJAMI IN POSTOJNSKI JAMI IZ 1748 Stephan KEMPE1, Hans-Peter HUBRICH2 & Klaus SUCKSTORFF3 Abstract UDC 551.44(497.4 Postojna)(091) Stephan Kempe, Hans-Peter Hubrich & Klaus Suckstorf: Te history of Postojnska Jama: Te 1748 Joseph Anton Nagel inscriptions in Jama near Predjama and Postojnska Jama Jama near Predjama and Postojnska Jama, Slovenia, are known for their rich body of historic inscriptions spanning over several centuries. Early explorers and visitors lef names, dates and symbols. Here we present the inscriptions by the mathematician Josef Anton Nagel (1717-1794). Nagel and the painter and engineer Alois Schafenrath (1794-1836) are the only ones that we can trace in both of the caves. Nagel visited the caves in July 1748 on order of Emperor Franz I. Te inscription in Jama near Predjama is (for cave inscriptions) rather long and written in Latin, giving name, profession, cause and date of the visit, while the inscription in Postojnska Jama is rather short, giving only name and date of visit. Unfortunately the inscription in Jama near Predjama is already partly obliterated by an incautious visitor. key words: history of speleology, cave inscription, J. A. Nagel, Jama near Predjama, Postojnska jama, Slovenia. Izvleček UDK 551.44(497.4 Postojna)(091) Stephan Kempe, Hans-Peter Hubrich & Klaus Suckstorf: Zgodovina Postojnske jame: Naglov napis v Jami pri Predjami in Postojnski jami iz 1748 Jama pri Predjami in Postojnska jama sta znani po številnih zgodovinskih napisih, ki obsegajo čas več stoletij. Zgodnji raziskovalci so zapustili imena, datume in simbole. V prispevku so predstavljeni napisi matematika Jožefa Antona Nagla (1717 -1794). Le Nagla ter slikarja in inženirja Alojza Schafenratha (1794-1836) je mogoče zaslediti v obeh jamah. Nagel je obiskal ti dve jami julija 1748, po ukazu cesarja Franca I. Napis v Jami pri Predjami, ki je za napise v jamah precej dolg, je v latinščini ter navaja ime, poklic, vzrok in datum obiska. Napis v Postojnski jami je precej kratek, le ime in datum obiska. žal je nepazljiv obiskovalec del napisa v Jami precej poškodoval. ključne besede: zgodovina speleologije, napis v jami, J. A. Nagel, Jama pri Predjami, Postojnska jama, Slovenija. INTRODUCTION Inscriptions in caves are an important historic source. chest. Tis is, for example, completely diferent in case of Tey inform about when cave visits began, when they the Baumann’s Cave, Harz Mountains, which also con-peaked and who was visiting the caves. Specifcally im- tains hundreds of signatures, none of which so far was portant are inscriptions of historically known persons. In matched with a historically known person (for the early this respect Postojnska jama is a speleohistoric treasure history of the Baumann’s Cave see Kempe et al., 2004b). 1 Prof. Dr. Stephan Kempe, Institute for Applied Geosciences, University of Technology Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstr. 9, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany, e-mail: kempe@geo.tu-darmstadt.de; 2 Dipl.-Ing. Hans-Peter Hubrich, Am Langenmarkstein 31, D-64686 Lautertal; 3 Klaus Suckstorf, Rosenweg 42, D-21502 Geesthacht. Received / Prejeto: 25.04.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2, 155–162, LJUBLJANA 2006 STEPHAN KEMPE, HANS-PETER HUBRICH & KLAUS SUCKSTORFF Nevertheless, even in the Postojnska Jama inscriptions have not been researched extensively. An earlier paper on the pre-1818 inscriptions in the old cave (Kempe, 2003) focused mostly on the fact that these inscriptions have survived largely unaltered since they were frst reported by Volpi (1821) and Hohenwart (1830, 1832a,b). Later (Kempe et al., 2004a) dealt with the inscriptions in Pisani Rov (Erzherzog Johann Grotte), specifcally with those of an inscription column, initiated by Alois Schafenrath in 1825. Most recently Kempe (2005) discussed the “Tartarus Panel” that also was established by Schafenrath in March 1825, but that also contains the signatures of the Fercher survey party of 1833. In addition to these signa- tures, letters were published for the frst time, illustrating the background of the cooperation between the administration of the Adelsberger Grotte and the direction of the mercury mine at Idria during the survey. One of the earliest historically known persons who lef inscriptions in the investigated caves was Joseph Anton Nagel (1717-1800). He visited the caves of Carniola (Krain) in 1748 and lef a hand-written manuscript about his visits. Here we give pictures of both his inscriptions in Jama near Predjama and Postojnska Jama, report on their conditions and give an overview of what he had to say about the two caves. JOSEPH ANTON NAGEL Joseph Anton Nagel was born in Rietberg (Rittberg), westphalia on February 3rd, 1717, and received his training as a mathematician at the ”Hohe Schule von Paderborn” (wurzbach, 1869; Schönburg-Hartenstein, 1987; Killy & Vierhaus, s.a.). Possibly on recommendation by his country lord, wenzel Anton Graf Kaunitz, (since 1764 Reichsfürst of Kaunitz-Rietberg) who held various ofces at the court in Vienna since 1737, Nagel was able to continue his studies at the University of Vienna. Afer a short stay at Brünn and an administrative position at the Upper-Hungarian salt mine of Soowar, he found employment at the imperial-royal court where he worked in the administration, a position that did not challenge his profound mathematical talent. Franz I (reigned 1745–65), the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of German Nation (not to be confused with Franz II, the last emperor of the Holy Roman Empire reigning 1792–1806 and who became Franz I, the Habsburgian Austrian Emperor, in which function he reigned 1804–1835) ordered Nagel to study natural curiosities, fnally a task according to his talents that took him on travels throughout the Empire, frst within Austria in 1747 and then to Carniola and Moravia in 1748. Nagel spent several weeks in Carniola (Slovenia) in summer of 1748. He duly delivered reports to the court (Nagel, 1748) that remain still largely unpublished (see Shaw, 1992). At around 1760 Nagel became a mathematician of the Habsburgian court and teacher of Erzherzog Karl Joseph and travelled abroad to France, England, the Netherlands, Hungary and Tyrol. On initiation by Maria Teresia he began to work on a map of the city of Vienna (1770 and 1779) and its suburbs (Ground plan of the Imperial-Royal Residence City Vienna, its suburbs and neighbouring towns) which was published as a copper etching in 1780/81. He also produced a map of the inner city of Vienna in 1774. Furthermore, he served as the director of the physical cabinet from 1770 until afer 1790. In 1775 he was appointed director of the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Vienna, a position he held until his retirement at around 1790. Nagel died in Vienna on May 6th, 1794. HIS REPORTS Te reports delivered by Nagel were hand-written in Current, the handwriting for ofcial documents. Te manuscripts about three of his early excursions were not published at the time (see Shaw, 1992). Tese are the descriptions of the Ötscher Mountain in 1747, about his travel to Crain and Moravia in 1748, and about his journey to Holic/Hungary. His account of the earthquake of 1768 was published in print. During his Crain and Moravia excursion Nagel spent several weeks in Slovenia in summer of 1748. Te manuscript related to his observations has 97 pages and 22 fgures. It is kept at the Austrian National Library at Vienna (MS N. 7854). we have now transcribed it entirely, planning its publication in full length. It is baroquely titled: 156 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 THE HISTORY OF POSTOJNSKA JAMA: THE 1748 JOSEPH ANTON NAGEL INSCRIPTIONS IN JAMA NEAR PREDJAMA ... Beschreibung deren Auf allerhöchsten Befehl Ihro Röm: Kayl: und Königl: Maytt: FRANCISCI I untersuchten, in dem Herzogthum Crain befndlichen Seltenheiten der Natur (Description of the curiosities of nature of the Herzogtum Crain studied by highest order of his Roman Em-perial and Royal Majesty, Franz I.) In this text we fnd many references to karst and caves, among them the “Lueger Höhle” (Jama near Pred-jama) and the “Adelsberger Grotte” (Postojnska Jama). In the beginning of his report, Nagel clarifes some of the tales in VALVASOR’s epic chronic (1689) that, as he explains, rest on wishful thinking, unproven hear-say and superstition but not on reality. In many cases he corrected doubtful passages by his own observations or by factual logic. He lists the following examples of distorted facts: - catching crabs by whistling; - hunting „Pilliche“ (i.e. Bilche, Siebenschläfer, engl. dormouse, Glis glis) with boots and coats spread out on the ground; - attracting leeches in Cerkniško jezero by singing; - making „Heimchen“ (i.e. the house cricket, Acheta do-mestica) appear by magic spells; - cemeteries on the top of Beuscheza Mountain and on the Steiner Alps; - the occurrence of eye- and featherless ducks afer foods in Cerkniško jezero that can see and fy afer two weeks again (which probably is a distorted early account of the endemic Proteus anguinus); - that the condensed fog drifing from caves represents devilish smoke. He reacted to such absurdities with the appeal that the authors should refrain from pleasing eulogies and distorting fourishes in „history books“. Rather they should describe the reality and stick to truth. Nagel did not fnd the Castle of Lueg, now a world-wide known tourist attraction, very attractive. He describes it as being built into the niche of the vertical wall above the cave entrance (Jama near Predjama). About 70 m behind the upper cave entrance a deep well is found that always contains good water. Tis cave served, according to legend, Erasmus Lueger, who was accused of having murdered Marshall von Pappenheim, of committing robbery Nagel deals with famous Cerkniško Jezero in a great detail. Among other facts he describes: - Changing water levels – up to complete dryness – and their dependence on precipitation; - the existence of numerous connections between the lake bottom and the conduits in the karst mountains; - artesian bursts of water afer torrential rains; - water-level-limiting „swallow holes“; and he discusses thoughts about the connectivity of the water courses above and below ground. Te observed interdependencies and the conclusions drawn from them are fnally packed together into a logical hydraulic model including abstracted inputs and outputs and water-level-depending discharges. Furthermore he postulates underground connections between caves and Cerkniško Jezero in the order: Cerkniško Jezero – Cave of St. Canzian (Rak valley, Zelške Jame) - Pivka - Adelsberger Grotte - Kleinhäusler Grotte - Untz. He deals with the phenomenon of noisily fowing water masses in karst cavities as well as with the thunder of so called “weather holes” (Hexenlöcher, Coprniška Jama). He continues to describe his observations in the Karst, specifcally about its caves, sketching their accessibility, spatial dimensions, length, divisions into compartments and remarkable fowstone formations. Nagel reports about the cave at St. Canzian (Rak valley, Zelške Jame), the “Gotscheer” caves (Kočevje), the three weather holes at Ober-Gurck (Krka), the curious spring at Ober-Laibach (Vrhnika), the cave at Planina / Kleinhäusler Grotte as the source of river Untz (Unica) (Planinska Jama), the Adelsberger Höhlen (Postojnska Jama), the Magdalenen-Grotte (črna Jama), the Lueger Höhle (Jama near Predjama), the cave at St. Servolo, the cave at Cornial (Vilenica), and the cave at Sloup in Moravia and the huge Macocha sinkhole. Tese descriptions are fanked by reports about other natural curiosities, such as a special nut tree (i.e. a tree with an extremely short vegetation period), the dattili del mare (marine bivalves that can drill into limestone) and a waterfall at Freistritz in Ober-Crain. and treason. Tis stronghold could not be conquered for a long time. It was provisioned through a four mile long secret passage from the Birnbaum Forest (Hrušica). Nagel did not fnd this passage and discredited it as a pure invention. Te access to the main cave, across a bridge and 30 m below the castle, was walled up at the time of Nagel. Nagel was able to explore about 800 m of passages. He found several sections of diferent character: stretches NAGEL’S REPORT „VON DER LUEGER HÖLE“ ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 157 STEPHAN KEMPE, HANS-PETER HUBRICH & KLAUS SUCKSTORFF with a loamy foor without fowstone, low crawling passages, two white fowstone pyramids, and „rare“ fgures of fowstone on the wall reminding of trees and forests. He observed a strong air current, emanating from a hole In his paragraph about Postojnska jama Nagel states that the cave consists of four cavities. Into the lower, lef one, the “Poyckfuß” (Pivka) sinks. Nagel makes the frst map of the cave (one of the earliest ever made) and describes in the text the individual cave sections accessible at the time, noting length, situation, branches, special formations, fowstone fgures etc.. 40 m behind the entrance there are remains of a wall from the time when the locals hid in the cave from raiding Turks. He cites the opinion and accedes with it that the Pivka reappears about 5 km further north from Planinska Jama as the “Untz” river (Unica). Again, just as in the preface to the manuscript, Nagel refutes VALVASOR, who related that a ghost haunts the frst section of the underground water course and that it would turn the neck of any intruder, simply by stating that he himself and his party emerges from the cave with „straight necks“. Nagel explains the occurrence of fshes in the cave streams with the changes in water level or discharge volume. For a 70 year old inscription Nagel calculates the fowstone growth rate (Pag. 46/2; see also Shaw, 1992). with this rate at hand, he estimates that the large columns in the Cave of Cornial (Vilenica) with six “Schuh” diameter must have taken 90,720 years to grow. But instead of casting doubt on the static Christian date of creation - calculated by Anglican Archbishop James USSHER (born 4th of January, 1581, in Dublin; died, 21st of March, 1656, in Reigate, Surrey) to have happened on 23rd of October 4004 BC - he shies away from the possible consequences and just states: „da aber seit der Sintfut nur 5696 Jahre verfossen seien, müssen sich irregularitäten ereignet haben“ (But because 5,696 years NAGEL’S INSCRIPTION Probably the most important and certainly the longest inscription in Jama near Predjama yet documented was lef by Nagel in Latin (Fig. 1). It is located on the right wall (looking in direction of the guided tour) in the “NamePassage” (Imenski rov), about 1 m above the foor and just beyond the “Bear Hole” (Medvedja Luknja). we took a picture of it during a guided tour on 19th of July, 2005. at the end of the cave, and concluded that there must be more passages; and he saw the many inscriptions of names that people had lef there prior to his visit. passed since the deluge, there must have been (other) ir-regularities“). Here Nagel makes a mistake: Ussher actually dated the deluge to 2501 BC i.e. the year 1748 should have been 4249 afer the deluge and not 5696. His date would (5696-4004-1748) place the deluge at 56 years after the creation of earth…. Nevertheless he questioned the accepted dogma in the following sentence (possibly with a twinkle in his eyes) by saying: „doch ist gewiß, daß sie (die Anwachsung des tropfsteins) sehr lang zugehe (benötige), weil sonst die höhlen in gar kurzer Zeit mit tropfstein durchgehend an-gefüllet werden, folglich den wässern zu ihrem lauf kein Raum mehr übrig bleiben werde“. (But it is for sure that it (the growth of the stalagmite) takes a long time, because otherwise the caves would be flled completely in a short time and the waters would not have space for their passage). Nagel’s report was written in 1748 and the time was ripe for some critical assessment on the age of the Earth. Only seven years later (1755) IMMANUEL KANT challenged the biblical view of the world in his book „Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Teorie des himmels“ and in 1780 JAMES HUTTON laid the foundation in his „Teo-ry of the Earth“ to exchange the biblical dating for a more scientifcally founded calculation of the age of Earth. So far, not all of the pictures of Nagel have been re-published, among others, Shaw (1992) reprinted a few of the pictures which accompany the reports including the frst map of the old Adelsberger Grotte. It is an amazingly correct ground view of the frontal part of the cave, giving all at the time known passages in due proportions and directions. IN PREDJAMSKI JAMA It is a small inscription written with pencil. Because the common clay-graphite pencil had not yet been invented, the pencil used by Nagel was most probably either a metal pencil (silver, lead or tin) or a piece of sharpened mineral graphite. According to the German Jama near Predjama guide (Habe, 1981; p. 43) the inscription reads as follows: NAGEL’S REPORT „VON DER ADELSPERGER HÖLEN“ 158 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 THE HISTORY OF POSTOJNSKA JAMA: THE 1748 JOSEPH ANTON NAGEL INSCRIPTIONS IN JAMA NEAR PREDJAMA ... fig. 1: Photograph of Nagel’s inscription in Jama near Predjama (Photo by S. Kempe). NAGEL suae sacrae Caesareae Majestatis (abbreviated) Franci. I Mathematicus aulicus Jussu Augustissimi hanc cryptem et alias complures in Car=niolia perlus-trabat A//o 1748 die 13 Julii Tat is translated: His Holy Imperator and Majesty Franz I Mathematicus on order of his highest (lord) (has) this crypt and others many in Carniola (Kärnten) investigated Anno 1748 day 13 July fig. 2: Situation of the Postojnska jama Nagel-inscription (h.P. hubrich for scale) (Photo by S. Kempe). Habe (1981) reports that the inscription had frst been identifed by the Coleopterologist Egon Pretner. Habe (1981; Inset Plate 14) also published a color picture of the inscription. It is, however, too small to read details clearly. Comparing Habe’s picture with our picture, it is clear that the inscription has been damaged in the meantime: Te letters NAG from Nagels’s name sufered a substantial smear. Also the “8” in “1748” appears somewhat blurred. Obviously someone touched the inscription accidentally while pointing at the lines. If it would have been an intentional damage, then the entire inscription could have been blurred with one palm stroke. A few centimeters above Nagel’s name there is another line with about fve to six pencil-written letters, all illegible. If this line is connected with Nagel’s inscription cannot be said with certainty. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 159 STEPHAN KEMPE, HANS-PETER HUBRICH & KLAUS SUCKSTORFF NAGEL’S INSCRIPTION IN POSTOJNSKA JAMA Nagel also lef his name in Postojnska jama. Habe already mentioned this (1986, p.14) but fails to give its position. On July 21st, we visited the old gallery in Postojnska jama in search of Fercher survey team inscriptions (1833; see Kempe, 2005). we found Nagel’s signature on the 45° sloping ceiling ca. 50 m from the access ladder (Fig. 2). It occurs - with a few other signatures (termed Old-Cave Panel 1) - at a place where there is no substantial spele-othem growth. Te signature is small and consists only of three lines (Fig. 3): fig. 3: Photograph of Nagel’s inscription in Postojnska Jama (Photo by S. Kempe). NAGEL 1748 19 Julii In both inscriptions Nagel uses only his Family name, spelled in capitals (if one accepts the last three letters of the Postojna inscriptions as capitalia). In Postojna he also uses printed letters for the month, while in Jama near Predjama we fnd the month (as well as the other text) written in a fuent handwriting. Both times the name of the month is given in its Latin form. Te Postojna inscription is, however, much more blurred than the Predjamski jama text. In Postojnska Jama probably the wall was not as dry as in Jama near Predjama and the “ink” apparently started to difuse into the intergranulars of the underlying rock surface. Tiny white specs have overgrown the writing in addition and a thin transparent veneer of fowstone has covered them. Te nature of the pen, with which was written cannot be assessed with certainty. In any case the reading of the inscription is much assisted by the knowledge of who made it and when it was made. Te year and the name of the month can be identifed clearly at least once one knows that Nagel visited the area in July 1748. Te exact date of the month is, however, illegible. Habe (1986, p. 14) assumed it is the 13th, but that is highly unlikely. we rather suggest the 19th as being the correct reading. Tat it cannot be the 13th arises from the fact, that Nagel then should have visited both Postojna and Jama near Predjama on the same day. Even more so, he should have produced the quite accurate map of Postojnska jama and explored Jama near Predjama extensively. All this is not very likely to have happened in one day. Alternatively the second numeral in the day could be a “4” making it the 14th. In any case Nagel seems to have visited frst Jama near Predjama, before he worked in the old Adelsberger Grotte. CONCLUSIONS Te well dated Nagel inscriptions are part of a much larger body of inscriptions. Te inscriptions tell us something about the frequency of visits. In Jama near Pred-jama there are many inscriptions dating from the 18th century. Tis is in striking contrast to the old cave of Postojna. Tere we only found two inscriptions out of ca. 250 documented by us as yet dating from the 18th century. Apart from Nagel, only one visitor signed during that century and that was much later, i.e. in the year 1795. Te last date before Nagel’s visit was 1699, making Nagel’s date the only one within almost a hundred years! Nagel’s inscriptions are singular in that sense that they are the oldest of a person known for his speleological accomplishments. It is not the oldest of a historically known person because in Jama near Predjama we fnd signatures of the Cobenzl family, the owners of the Pred-jama Castle that probably predate Nagel’s signature. Nagel is also not the only person who lef his name in both caves: Alois Schafenrath (1794-1836), famous for his drawings of Postojnska jama (published by Hohen-wart, 1830, 1832a,b, and in his guide to the cave, Schafen-rath, 1834) lef his name also in both caves (Figs. 4 and 5) 160 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 THE HISTORY OF POSTOJNSKA JAMA: THE 1748 JOSEPH ANTON NAGEL INSCRIPTIONS IN JAMA NEAR PREDJAMA ... fig. 4: Photograph of Aloys Schafenrath’s signature in the old cave of Postojnska jama (Photo by S. Kempe). as we now discovered. Above Schafenrath’s signature the name “Jac. Vidmar” is found in the same handwriting. Jacob widmar (spelled German) was one of the workers present, when Luka čeč discovered the main passage in Postojnska jama and who lef a written statement about the circumstances of this discovery. It was reproduced by Schmidl (1854) and is discussed in detail by Kempe et al., (2004a). Obviously Vidmar and Schafenrath visited fig. 5: Photograph of Jacob vidmar’s and Aloys Schafenrath’s signatures in Jama near Predjama at the end of the historic passage (Photo by S. Kempe). Jama near Predjama together. Unfortunately they did not note the date of their visit. Studying cave inscriptions yields new information about the history of the cave, its explorers and visitors. we are working now on a data bank documenting all of the inscriptions in the old cave of Postojna ACKNOwLEDGEMENTS we thank Dr. Tadej Slabe for organizing the visit to Postoj- Leon Drame from the Karst Research Institute accompa-nska jama and the administration of the cave for allowing nied us into Postojnska jama on 21st of July, 2005. English us to visit the cave beyond the tourist trails. Helena Vičič was improved by Dr. M.S. werner, Hilo, Hawaii. guided us into Jama near Predjama on 19th July, 2005, and ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 161 STEPHAN KEMPE, HANS-PETER HUBRICH & KLAUS SUCKSTORFF REFERENCES Habe, F., 1981: Predjama, das Schloss und die Höhle, 1. Auf..- Höhle von Postojna, 50 pp, 16 Tafeln. Habe, F., 1986: Te Postojna Caves and other Tourist Caves in Slovenia, 4th ed. – Postojnska jama, Postojna, 83 pp, 11 Plates, 1 folded map. Hohenwart, F. Graf von, 1830, 1832a, 1832b: wegweiser für die wanderer in der berühmten Adelsberger und Kronprinz Ferdinands-Grotte bey Adelsberg in Krain; als Erklärung der von Herrn Aloys Schafen-rath, k.k. Kreis-Ingenieur in Adelsberg, gezeichneten Ansichten dieser Grotte. - wien, J.P. Sollinger, 3 Vol., 16 + 9 + 14 pp. and 21 copperplates (Reprint 1978: Šajn, S., ed.; Introduction: Habe, F. & Šlenc, J.: Postojnska jama; 1. ed., Postojnska Jama THO; Postojna; 32 pp Introduction, folio). Kempe, S., 2003: Die alten Inschrifen der Adelsberger Grotte /Postojnska Jama. – Die Höhle, 54(2): 36-44. Kempe, S., 2005: Te inscriptions of the Tartarus Panel and the 1833 Fercher-survey, Postojnska jama. – Acta Carsologica, 34/1 (13): 221-235. Kempe, S., I. Bauer, H. Dirks, & H.-V. Henschel 2004a: Schafenrath’s inscription column in Pisani rov, Postojnska jama. – Acta Carsologica, 33/2: 299-312. Kempe, S., B. Dunsch, K. Fetkenheuer, G. Naumann & F. Reinboth, 2004b: Die Baumannshöhle bei Rübeland/Harz im Spiegel der wissenschaflichen Literatur vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert: Lateinische quellentexte. - Braunschweiger Naturkundliche Schrifen, Bd. 7, Hef 1, Okt. 2004: 171-215. Killy, w. , & R. Vierhaus, (eds.), s.a. [ca. 1990]: Deutsche Biographische Enzyklopädie Bd. 7, (May-Pleßner). – wissenschafliche Buchgesellschaf, Darmstadt, 695pp (Nagel see p. 335). Nagel, J.A., 1748: Beschreibung deren auf allerhöchsten Befehl Ihro Röm. Kayserl. und königl, Maytt. Fran-cisci I. untersuchten in dem Herzogthum Crain befndlichen Seltenheiten der Natur. – Vienna: Nationalbibliothek, MS N. 7854, ii +97f. Schmidl, A., 1854: Die Grotten und Höhlen von Adelsberg, Lueg, Planina und Laas, Text and Atlas. – wilhelm Braumüller, wien, 316 pp, 15 Plates. Schafenrath, A., 1834: Beschreibung der berühmten Grotte bei Adelsberg in Krain. – I. Edlen v. Klein-mayr, Laibach, 32 pp., 2 Lithographs. Schönburg-Hartenstein, J.; 1987: Josef Anton Nagel – ein Direktor des physikalischen Kabinettes, Verlag der österreichischen Akademie der wissenschafen, wien. Shaw, T.R., 1992: History of Cave Science, the Exploration and Study of Limestone Caves, to 1900. - 2nd ed., Sydney Speleological Soc., Broadway, New South wales, Australia, 338 pp. Valvasor, J.w., 1689: Die Ehre des Herzogthums Crain: Das ist: wahre, gründliche, und recht eigendliche Belegen- und Beschafenheit dieses, in manchen alten und neuen Geschicht-Büchern zwar rühmlich berührten, doch bishero nie annoch recht beschriebenen Römisch-Keyserlichen herzlichen Erblandes, Bd. I-IV. – wolfgang Moritz Endter, Buchhändler in Nürnberg, Laybach. Volpi, G. de, 1821: über ein bey Adelsberg neuentdecktes Paläotherium. – Maldinische Schrifen, Triest, 31 pp., 2 Plates. wurzbach, C.v., 1856 – 1891: Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich; 60 Bände; wien, Verlag der Universitätsbuchdruckerei von L.C. Zamar-ski und später Druck und Verlag der k.k. Hof- und Staatsdruckerei. 162 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 COBISS: 1.01 BALTAZAR HACqUET (1739/40-1815), THE PIONEER OF KARST GEOMORPHOLOGISTS BALTAZAR HACqUET (1739/40-1815), PIONIR V GEOMORFOLOGIJI KRASA Andrej KRANJC1 Abstract UDC 551.44 : 929 Hacquet B. Andrej Kranjc: Baltazar Hacquet (1739/40-1815), the Pioneer of Karst Geomorphologists Besides other sciences, B. Hacquet dedicated his research to geology and geomorphology (as we call them now). His most important work “Oryctographia carniolica or Physical (= geological) description of Carniola...” (1778-1789) contains descriptions of rocks, ores, fossils, as well as surface and underground features. In Carniola, karst is prevailing and therefore there is a lengthy description of karst geology and geomorphology included. His classifcation of mountains specially mentions montes se-cundarii formed by grey limestone. Of surface features dolines, glacio-karstic dolines on high plateaus (with temperature and vegetation inversion), and karst poljes are mentioned. Hacquet presumed the evolution from fooded polje (seasonal lake) to a dry one. To explain the weathering and dissolution of limestone Hacquet took into account the diferences between the rock, the exposition and its element content. Tat is the reason why Gams regarded him as a precursor of a climatic geomorphology and the “father” of corrosion theory. Hacquet has also found the diference between limestone and dolomite. His description of dolomite as lapis suillus preceded the one of D. Dolomieu for 13 years. Hacquet’s statements were not based on observation only, but on the experiment too. when looking upon Hacquet’s explanations and results we must not forget that Hacquet’s time was still time of parapathetic logic, of four elements and of the principle of burning - the fogiston. key words: history of geomorphology, karstology, Hacquet B., Carniola, Slovenia. Izvleček UDK 551.44 : 929 Hacquet B. Andrej Kranjc: Baltazar Hacquet (1739/40-1815), pionir v geomorfologiji krasa Poleg drugih znanosti se je B. Hacquet posvečal tudi geologiji in geomorfologiji, kot ju imenujemo danes. Njegovo najpomembnejše delo “Oryctographia carniolica ali fizični (= geološki) opis Kranjske...” (1778-1789) vsebuje opise kamnin, rudnin, fosilov kot tudi površinskih in podzemeljskih oblik. Na Kranjskem prevladuje kras in v svoje delo je vključil tudi dolg opis geologije in geomorfologije krasa. V razvrstitvi gora je posebej pozoren na montes secundarii iz sivega apnenca. Od površinskih oblik omenja vrtače, na visokih planotah konte (z rastlinskim obratom) in kraška polja. Domneva, da so se kraška polja razvijala od poplavljenih (presihajočih jezer) do suhih polj. Da bi razložil preperevanje apnenca je Hacquet upošteval razlike v kamnini, osončenost in vsebnost elementov. Zaradi tega ga Gams šteje za začetnika klimatske geomorfologije in za »očeta« teorije korozije. Hacquet je odkril tudi razliko med apnencem in dolomitom. Njegov opis dolomita pod imenom lapis suillus je izšel 13 let preden je objavil svojega D. Dolo-mieu. Hacquet ni sklepal le na podlagi opazovanj, ampak tudi na podlagi poizkusov. Ko gledamo na Hacquetove razlage in izsledke, ne smemo pozabiti, da je bila čas, v katerem je živel, še čas parapatetične logike, štirih elementov in principa gorenja - fogistona. ključne besede: zgodovina geomorfologije, krasoslovje, Hac-quet B., Kranjska, Slovenija. 1Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU, , Titov trg 2, Si-6230 Postojna, Slovenia, e-mail: kranjc@zrc-sazu.si Received / Prejeto: 01.09.2006 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2, 163–168, LJUBLJANA 2006 ANDREJ KRANJC INTRODUCTION Baltazar (Balthazar, Belsazar) Hacquet was born in France 1739 or 1740 and died at Vienna in 1815. He spent the period from 1766 to 1787 in Carniola. During the frst years he was a surgeon at Idrija mercury mine. During later years he hold diferent positions at Ljubljana, such as the secretary of the Agricultural Society and the professor of chemistry and obstetrics. Finally he lef “bigoted and uncultured” Carniolians and took the ofer of the University at Lvov (Lviv) to become professor of natural history and medicine there (Gauchon 1999) (Fig. 1). fig. 1. Baltazar hacquet (ilustrirani Slovenec 1927). Besides medicine as his professional occupation, he was very interested in other sciences, mainly in chemistry, palaeontology with mineralogy, hydrology, and speleology, not to mention medicine, ethnography etc. In his works he ofen presented himself as being a chemist. He initiated new chemistry theories and introduced the methods of quantitative and qualitative chemical analyses to Carniola (Tišler 2003). He dedicated a great part of his free time to study and work in science. But travels attracted him the most, either walking around Idrija on a nice Sunday afernoon or travelling across Dinaric or Carpathians Mountains. Long distance travels, mostly through the mountains of Central, Southern and Eastern Europe took him two months per year in average. Not sport but scientifc motives forced him to climb the mountains thus becoming very important person in the history of mountaineering. I must mention that he was a member of the second team who succeeded to reach Triglav (2864 m), the highest peak of Julian Alps. It is due to a bad weather that prevented him to be the frst one (Lovšin 1946). Hacquet published a lot, his bibliography contains 110 articles in scientifc journals and about 30 books and extensive treatises as well (Valjo 1997). He wrote about the results of his observations and experimental work (even about an ice frost on his window panel) (Južnič 2003) as well as detailed accounts of his travels. To illustrate them he added maps drawn by himself. He published the frst geological map of Carniola (a great part of present Slovenia). His principle to put on maps the names used by local population (in “local” language) is important for Slovenia - on his geological map there are Slovene names of places and not German ones as was the habit in Hacquet’s time. It seems that Hacquet was the frst to use the name “Dinaric Alps” roughly in the sense of nowadays Dinaric Mountains (Hacquet 1778 - 1789) (Fig. 2). From the point of view of karstology his the most important work was “Oryctographia carniolica oder Physikalische Erdbeschreibung...” that is the “Physical Description of the Duchy of Carniola, Istria and part of neighbour countries”, written in German language (Hacquet 1778 - 1789). It was published in four volumes, printed in Leipzig by J. G. I. Breitkopf between 1778 and 1789. Te work has over 700 pages in total. In Hacquet’s time physical description meant primarily geology and geo-morphology, but a lot of work is dedicated to economy, mines and specially mining industry. fig. 2. Cutting out of the legend to hacquet’s mappa litho hydrographica Nationis slavicae (hacquet 1778 - 1789). 164 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 BALTAZAR HACqUET (1739/40-1815), THE PIONEER OF KARST GEOMORPHOLOGISTS GEOMORPHOLOGY IN HACqUET’S TIME “So little progress (in the feld of geomorphology, note by the author) was made in Europe from the days of the frst century A.D. until the opening of the sixteenth century that little need to be said about it “ (Fenneman 1939). During the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries land forms were explained largely in terms of the then-prevailing philosophy of catastrophism, according to which the features of the Earth were either specially created or were the result of violent cataclysms which produced sudden and marked changes on the surface of the Earth. As long as the Earth’s age was measured in a few thousands years, there was not much chance for the importance of slow geologic processes to be appreciated (Tornbury 1969). Some of the Hacquet’s ideas on geomorphology correspond to the general knowledge prevailing in the 18th century. Hacquet’s contemporaries were so called “pre-Hut-tonian” geomorphologists. Te most important among them were Jean étienne Guettard (1715 - 1786), Nicolas Desmarest (1725 - 1815) and Horace Benedict De Saussure (1740 - 1799). Tey, perhaps more than any others paved the way for Hutton (1726-1797) (Tornbury 1969). James Hutton himself lived at the same time as Hacquet. But his Te Teory of the Earth was published too late (1785) to be possible for Hacquet to use it. Being a dense and borderline unreadable work it was not perceived by the science circles before the simplifed version by Playfair (1802). Modern geomorphology started by Hutton’s ideas and developed in the second part of the 19th century. It appears that the term “geomorphology” was used in its present sense by Keith as long ago as in 1894 (Tornbury 1969), while others stated that the term was frst mentioned by Naumann in 1858 already (Herak & Stringfeld). In his Oryctographia Hacquet cited about 190 authors. Among them are well known old authors as Aristoteles, Democritus, Herodotus, Posidonius, Tales, and Plinius. He cited some works of his well known contemporaries, Beckmann (1776), Collini (1774), Gruber (1781), and Leroy (1776), just to mention some examples. Among the cited authors are well known authorities previous to Hacquet as Agricola, Bufon, Kircher, Leibnitz, and Linné. From the science of chemistry, mineralogy and geology Hacquet used the works of Boerhave, Born, Boyle, Delisle, Lavoisier, Sage, Scheele, and wal-lerius among others less known nowadays. He was acquainted with the theories of his time about the Earth by the authors Bertrand, Burnet, whiston and woodwart. It is self-understanding that he knew the works treating the nature of Carniola and other nearby countries, for example Brown, Cluverus, Fortis, Gruber, Kircher, Schönleben, Scopoli, Steinberg and Valvasor. Although Hacquet knew and used the works of his contemporaries, the scientists who founded a modern science, like Boyle and Lavoisier, his scientifc knowledge corresponds to the knowledge of his time. Agricola’s clas-sifcation of minerals from 1556 was still in use. For example: mineral bodies were divided into inhomogeneous and homogenous bodies; the last containing simple minerals. And simple minerals were: earths, solifed juices, stones, and metals. To explain diferent rates of solution of limestone and dolomite Hacquet helped himself by fo-giston - the principle of burning. In Oryctographia Hacquet cited and discussed Guettard’s paper in “Mémoires de l’Academie Royale des Sciences” (1746-1764) on the types of “Tropfsteine” (speleothems). He appreciated very much DE Saussure’s “Voyage dans les Alpes” (1777-1796). Regarding the fact that Hacquet only had the frst two volumes of De Sau-ssure’s book and that the manuscript of the last volume of Oryctographia was completed in 1787, he could not be acquainted with De Saussure’s views upon limestone Alps, which interested Hacquet the most: “...so hofe ich auch, Herr von Saussure wird ... die grosse Kalkalpkette der Schweiz nicht übergehen...” (...so I hope that Mr. Von Saussure will not omit the great Alpine limestone range in Switzerland...). HACqUET’S VIEw ON KARST MORPHOLOGY Not only in “Oryctographia carniolica” the karst was mentioned but also in other Hacquet’s books about his travels through Austrian and Turkish Illyrien, through Eastern Alps (from Triglav to Grossglockner), through Southern Alps (from Dinaric to Noric Alps) and through Carpathi- In accordance with some other authors Hacquet classifed the mountains into three types: Montes pri-marii - Hauptgebirge (the main range) of primary rocks; Montes secundarii - Mittelgebirge (middle mountains) of Lapis calcarius, the grey limestone; Montes tertiarii -Vorgebirge (fore mountains), product of weathering. But ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 165 ANDREJ KRANJC Hacquet stressed that also limestone mountains can be of the same importance as the Montes primarii and that some middle mountains of limestone have the scree of limestone debris only, without marl (Fig. 3). fig. 3. hacquet’s illustration to montes secundarii - mittelgebirge of lapis calcarius (Grey limestone). A - Grauer Kalkfels (Grey limestone rock), B - Schieferanlage (Shale complex), C -Kalktrümmeranlage (limestone debris complex) (hacquet 1778 - 1789). Hutton’s (1785) book on the evolution of the Earth and his famous statement “No vestige of a beginning - no prospect of an end” were not known by Hacquet as this book was published much later than “Oryctographia”. In contrast to most of Hacquet’s contemporaries, Hacquet clearly was not a “catastrophist”. In nature, in landscape Hacquet saw a demonstration of slow relief evolution. For the illustration just few examples from “Oryctographia”: - Plateau Kras (Karst, Carso) was once a big lake or part of a sea, a bay of the Adriatic Sea. Te ridges and summits of Dinaric Alps were a chain of islands, as are nowadays the islands along the coast, from Istria to Ragusa (Dubrovnik). - Te bottom (its features and the sediments) of the polje Dobrepolje proves that the polje was once a lake closed by limestone mountains, which drained and f-nally became dry. - Levelled surfaces in the mountains, for example around the Snežnik Mountain, are due to the efect of rain. - Terraces of the valley of žejane (Istria) are the proof that once the valley bottom was higher than nowadays. As for karst morphology Hacquet ofen mentioned bare rocky karst surface and its ability to absorb immediately all the meteoric water. He compared the region Kras (Karst) with the rocky Arabia petrea. Karst (closed) depressions specially attracted his attention, such as deep dolines and poljes. Te frst he calls Kessel (kettle) or Vertiefungen (deepening) and the second Kesselthal (kettle valley) or geschlossene Fläche (closed plain). He was specially impressed by great “Kessel” on high karst plateaus. In them Hacquet observed vegetation inversion. Today we call this form “konta” - a glacio-karstic doline. It is clear that he devoted a special attention to the polje of Cerknica or Cerkniško Jezero (lake) (Fig. 4). fig. 4. hacquet’s panorama of Cerkniško Polje (hacquet 1778 1789). Hacquet paid a special attention to the weathering of limestone. He found out that the irregular weathering is due to unhomogeneity of limestone. He established this by a test by “mineral acid”. He observed diferent intensity of weathering regarding the side of the slope: on the sunny side rocks are more weathered than on the shady side. He explained this by diferent intensity of calcination. In the heat the limestone calcinates stronger and the product, the calx is washed away by rain. Hacquet also knew that the limestone weathered frst into clay-shale and fnally into clay. Te idea and the terms calx and calcination go back to Agricola. In modern terms they mean oxide and oxidation. Maybe more than by the features which are a result of dissolution of limestone, Hacquet was interested in the process itself, in solution of limestone. By the general knowledge of the time the minerals and rocks contain the following components: fxe Luf (fxed air) or Lufsäure (much later J. Black found out that “fxed air” is in fact CO2), Elementarerde (elementary earth), and fxe Feuer or Flogiston. According to Hacquet’s ideas all bodies contain fxe Luf and fxe Feuer (Flogiston). Elementarerde which is never in pure form, is also in limestone. Regarding Flogiston, it was Lavoisier who proved that it does not exist. Hacquet’s views upon the dissolution of limestone can be resumed as follows: 166 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 BALTAZAR HACqUET (1739/40-1815), THE PIONEER OF KARST GEOMORPHOLOGISTS - water dissolves limestone with the help of acid, - dissolved limestone remains in water to be deposited later, - water cannot dissolve dolomite because of the Flo-giston. Te acid, which helps to dissolve limestone, is only one, Acidum universale, but it can exist in diferent forms. In the air there can be also other acids and alkalines, such as saline rain. Also calx may contain Acidum universale. And essential for the dissolution is Lufsäure/Elementa-rerde ratio. Te process of dissolution has the following course: acid dissolves limestone by taking away essential parts of calx (fxe Luf or Lufsäure) and clay remains. Opposite of dissolution is deposition, in this case deposition of calcite: water dissolves limestone, takes it into the cave and deposits it in the form of Tropfsteine (speleothems) or vielfältige Steinrinden or incrustationes (crust) (Kranjc 2003). Hacquet is also important for geomorphology and geology because of his study of dolomite. In 1778 he described the dolomite for the frst time as a rock diferent For the conclusion I have to repeat the most important observations, ideas and revelations achieved by Baltazar Hacquet in the feld of geomorfology and karstology: - he explained the evolution of the relief by slow and continuous action of exogene forces instead of catastrophes; - he tried to explain weathering of limestone; - he discussed and tried to explain diferential dissolution of limestone; Te research was carried out in the frame of the programme “Karst research” funded by the Slovenian Re- from limestone. It was 13 years before D. De Dolomieu (1791) published his basic paper “Sur un genre de pierre calcaires tres peu efervescentes...” on the rock, which was later named afer him. It has to be mentioned that Dolo-mieu visited Hacquet while travelling through Ljubljana. It was before the publication of the mentioned paper. Hacquet called dolomite Stinkstein (Lapis suillus), this is “stinking stone”. He found out that water cannot dissolve a lot of dolomite - because of Flogiston. And therefore such water does not deposit fowstone or speleothems in caves. He observed such a situation in Podpeška Jama cave at the polje of Dobrepolje. Te plan of this cave was already published by Valvasor in 1687. Te essential problem which has to be solved to explain the dissolution of limestone, or the process of corrosion as we say today, was according to Hacquet’s opinion the following: where does the acid which dissolves limestone come from? Does it come from the air (Vitriolsäure) or does it form from the Lufsäure which is one of substantial components of limestone itself? - he described the most important karst features (dolines, poljes, caves); - he described the dolomite and drew the distinction between it and limestone (before De Dolomieu); - he stressed the importance of limestone mountains. search Agency and supported by the Slovene Science Foundation. CONCLUSION ACKNOwLEDGMENT ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 167 ANDREJ KRANJC REFERENCES Anon., 1927: Hacquet Baltazar (1739 - 1815), part. chir., naravoslovec.- Ilustrirani Slovenec Vol. 3, No. 38, p. 314 Dolomieu, D. d., 1791: Sur un genre de pierres calcaires tres peu efervescentes avec les acides et phospho-rescentes par la collision.- J. Physique 39, 3-10 Fenneman, N. M., 1939: Te rise of physiography.- Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 50, 349-360 Gauchon, C., 1999: Investigations about Balthazar Hac-quet.- Slovenský kras 37, 53-60 Guettard, J. E., 1746 - 1764: Mémoires de l’Academie Royale des Sciences. - In: http://www.cosmovisions. com/Guetard.htm Hacquet, B., 1778 - 1789: Oryctographia Carniolica oder Physikalische Erdbeschreibung des Herzogthums Krain, Istrien, und zum Teil der benachbarten Länder. - Erster Teil (1778): XVI, 162 pp., Zweyter Teil (1781): XXXII, 186 pp., Dritter Teil (1784): XX, 184 pp., Vierter Teil (1789): XVI, 91 pp., G. I. Breitkopf, Leipzig Hacquet, B., 1785: Physikalisch-politische Reise aus den Dinarischen durch die Julischen, Carnischen, Rhätischen in die Norischen Alpen im Jahre 1781 und 1783 unternommen von Hacquet.- 2 T.: 156 and 220 pp. Herak, M. & V. T. Stringfeld, 1972: Karst - important karst regions of the Northern Hemisphere.- Elsevier. XIV, 551 pp. Hutton, J., 1785: Teory of the Earth.- In: http://www.an-swers.com/topic/james-hutton, 11.8.2005 Južnič, S., 2003: Ledene rože na Hacquetovem oknu. -Hacquetia. Vol. 2, No. 2: 119-128 Kranjc, A., 2003: Balthasar Hacquet, predecessor of modern karstology.- Hacquetia, Vol. 2, No. 2: 129-138 Lovšin, E., 1946: V Triglavu in njegovi soseščini.- Ljubljana, 358 pp. Naumann, C. F., 1858: Lehrbuch der Geognosie.- Engelmann, Leipzig, 576 pp. Playfair, J., 1802: Illustrations of the Huttonian Teory of the Earth.- In: http://www.answers.com/topic/ james-hutton, 11.8.2005. Saussure, B. H. de, 1777 - 1796: Voyage dans les Alpes.-In: “Horace Benedict de Saussure.” LoveToKnow 1911 Online Encyclopedia. 2003, 2004 LoveToKnow, http://42.1911encyclopedia.org/S/SA/SAUSSURE_ HORACE_BENEDICT_DE.htm Tornbury, w. D., 1969: Principles of Geomorphology. -John willey & Sons, 594 pp. Tišler, M., 2003: Prispevki kemije k evropski kulturi in civilizaciji.- Dela – Opera 13, Classis III, SAZU, Ljubljana, 170 pp. Valjo, M., 1997: Baltazar Gaket i Ukraina.- Lvivska nau-kova biblioteka, Lviv, 133 pp. 168 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 COMMENTS - ODMEVI KAREL DEžMAN IS NOT FORGOTTEN when writing about Karel Dežman in the journal Acta carsologica 35/1, Stanislav Južnič1 noted that Dežman’s work was almost forgotten, even though he had been one of the leading nature historians of his time. In the abstract, Južnič underlined: »His scientifc works are not very well known because he did not follow the political line of the ofcial Slovenian national representatives.« In the summary, on the other hand, the author wrote: »with the use of published works and manuscripts we can thus present, for the frst time in greater detail, Dežman’s great knowledge that extended even into mathematical and astronomical sciences.« Karel Dežman, however, is and has not been forgotten, considering that much has been written about him in the last decade and that particularly his botanical activities have been covered relatively well. Tis is what was written about Dežman’s link with the botanist Valentin Plemel, his friend and grammar school classmate, by Nada Praprotnik2 who presented his botanical activities at the symposium Flora of Slovenia 20003 and eventually published her supplemented and extended paper in the journal Argo4. About his work carried out at Ljubljansko barje, she wrote an article published in Narava Slovenije5. Karel Dežman worked during the botanical quietude in the period between Franc Hladnik and Alfonz Paulin. As a botanist, he began to engage in new spheres and soon surpassed, especially with his phytogeographi-cal contributions, till then mostly foristic orientation of our nature scientists. He wrote much about the fora of Ljubljansko barje, was the frst to call attention to the newly introduced (adventive) species in our country, and listed the lowest lying localities of the Alpine fora in Carniola. His herbarium collection is kept by the Slo- 1 Južnič, S., 2006: Karst research in the 19th century – Karel Dežman’s (1821-1889) work. – Acta carsologica 35/1, pp.139148, Ljubljana. 2 Praprotnik, N., 1992: Botanik Valentin Plemel in njegov her-barij. – Scopolia 27, pp. 1-42. Ljubljana. 3 Praprotnik, N., 2000: Botanično delovanje Karla Dežmana. – Zbornik izvlečkov referatov simpozija Flora Slovenije 2000, p. 28, Ljubljana. 4 Praprotnik, N., 2001: Karel Dežman in njegovo botanično delovanje. – Argo 44/2, pp. 14-20, Ljubljana. 5 Praprotnik, N., 2001: Iz zgodovine botaničnih raziskav Ljubljanskega barja: Karel Dežman (1821-1889). – In: Narava Slovenije, Ljubljansko barje in Iška (Ed.: A. Gogala), pp. 27-28, Ljubljana. vene Museum of Natural History. At the beginning of his professional career, Dežman was engaged largely in botanical research, and it is his very botanical work that is presented fairly comprehensively and suitably evaluated. In his life, Dežman was highly versatile, and as he was a leading personality in several spheres, it is difcult to present him in full. with his scientifc criticalness he had a strong and favourable efect on domestic professional public and contributed a great deal primarily to the academic development of the Museum, for which he worked from 1852 till his death in 1889. Tanks to him, a new building was erected in 1888 for the Carniolan Provincial Museum, which is still home to two national institutions: the Slovene Museum of Natural History and the National Museum of Slovenia. Dežman’s museal work has never been suppressed, as he is correctly cited in all historical surveys. It is true, however, that his museal merits have no doubt been insufciently underlined! As a member of the Ljubljana Street Naming Committee, Prof Dr Tone wraber proposed (during his mandate from 1991 to1995) one of the streets (perhaps on the edge of Ljubljansko barje) to be named afer Dežman and thus »to confrm the return of a lost son at the time when Slovenia acquired its independence«. Unfortunately, his endeavours proved unsuccessful. Karel Dežman plays a discernible role also in the work by Dragan Matić62 as »a herald of the Germans in Carniola« from 1861 onwards. In Južnič’s article, the portrait of Karl Dežman was published as well (with the painting’s basic details missing). It was made by Filip Fröhlich around 1865 and is kept by the National Museum of Slovenia. At the end, let us quote the following conciliatory words published by Bleiweis’s Novice7 afer Dežman’s death: »If we are now to make a fnal estimate of De-schmann’s work, it is difcult to judge whether his bantering made more harm than good for the mental development of the Slovenian nation. Deschmann’s merits for the provincial museum have been acknowledged both by his followers and adversaries, and this is why we, too, are calling out at his grave: »Let him rest in peace!« Nada Praprotnik 6 Matič, D., 2002: Nemci v Ljubljani 1861-1918. Ljublja- na. 7 Novice, 1889, p. 87. Ljubljana. ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 – 2006 169 REPORTS - POROčILA THE 6th SINAGEO AND THE INSERTION OF THE KARST GEOMORPHOLOGY THEMATIC SESSION Between September 6th and 10th, it took place in the city of Goiânia, Brazil, the 6th National Symposium of Geomor-phology (VI SINAGEO), promoted by the Union of the Brazilian Geomorphology (UGB), simultaneously with the Regional Conference of Geomorphology, promoted by the International Association of Geomorphologists (IGA). Such integrated event had as its objectives, to divulge and discuss the results of scientifc studies, theories, models, methods and techniques, with emphasis in the tropical and subtropical environments. Te studies were grouped in thematic sessions that synthetize the main currents of international trends and specialties of geomorphology. Structuralized through the division of the subjects in 14 Tematic Sessions, the event counted on the presentation of about 550 works, between posters and oral communications, added by 18 lectures and 5 round table discussions, congregating more than 700 researchers, with greater importance given to the Tematic Session on Karst Geomorphology. For the frst time, afer six events of this kind, the Karst studies had its insertion due to the considerable number of papers in the formats of posters and oral communications. Te event was ofcially opened in September 7th with the lectures by professors Mike Tomas (Scotland) and Victor Baker (United States), both guided by the theme of the global climatic changes of the quaternary and its relation with geomorphology. Later on, in the same day, took place the round table on the subject “Te Tropics: past, gif and future”. From September 8th to 10th the event was organized in lectures, oral communications and round tables according to the 14 existing thematic sessions. Te biggest interest of the authors were the Tematic Session 5, related to Karst Geomorphology. Tis Session was presided by Andrej Kranjc of the Karst Research Institute (ZRC SAZU), together with the Heinz Charles Kohler, of the Post-Graduation Program in Geography of the PUC Minas, Brazil. Under Kohler coordination, the karst studies started with the conference “Kras - the Classic Karst (Slovenia-italy)”, given by Kranjc. His lecture was developed in a very interesting format, with the history behind the origin of the name Kras, as well a historical overview of the frst studies initiated in the region. According to Kranjc (2006), kras is a limestone plateau located northwest of Slovenia (45o45’ N, 14o00’ w) part of the Dinaric Mountains, being well detached in relation to the non-carbonatic adjacencies of the Triest Bay on the southwest, the alluvial plain of Friuli and the sedimentation valley of Vipava to the northwest. Such plateau is considered an anticlinorium of Cretaceous and Tertiary limestone, crossed by three main faults in “Di-naric” direction (Nw - SE), with altitudes between 200 and 500 m covering an area of about 550 km2. when talking about the history behind the evolution of the studies of the Dinaric Karst or the “Classical Karst”, the impressions of the authors were reinforced by considering the Karst as a vast feld for human and physical studies. By making an epistemological refection on the origin of the term Kras until the currently used terminology, Kranjc catched our attention to the existence of brief descriptions of the karst in works from the 4th century B.C., as well the impressions lef in the works of Strabo, Polibios, Plinius, Livius, and Vergilius, among others. Posidonius of Apameia (135 – 50 B.C.), for example, said that “the river Timavus springs in the mountain, fows into an abyss, reappears afer the distance of 130 stadia, and fows into the sea”, a clear description of a river sink and a resurgence. At the Medieval Age, the “Tabula Peutingeriana” already showed indications of a karstic region with human settlements next to it. At the same Era, the tourism in caves initiated, more specifcally in the Cave of Sveta jama (Sacred Cave), in 280 A.C., where masses and marriages started to be common. Te caves of Landarska (888 A.C.), Postojnska (1213 A.C.) and Vilenica (1663) also called the attention of people living near by them. By the end of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century, the region popularizes in consequence of descriptions made by geographers, topographers, scholars and travelers, and also by the fact of Trieste being turned into a “free trade” port in 1719. In this period, more systematic studies began to increase. Tus, pioneers scholars dedicated to the study of the kras region, starting formally with a publication of Franc Jožef Hanibal HOHENwART (1830), where the term “karst” appears for the frst time. Geographers and geologists of the 19th century started to use with more frequency the term karst and the works of Jovan Cvijić (1893) were considered to have given the scientifc basis to the study of the “classical karst”, followed by Grund (1805), Kraus (1894) and Martel (1894), for example. Afer all this thoughts, Kranjc fnished with the exemplifcation of its sayings with photos related to the karst geomorphology and human usage, since the use of 170 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 REPORTS - POROčILA the endokarst for rituals, the exploitation of limestone in the region for house and terraces construction, the use of the exokarst for farming, water and ice catchment for food conservation, as well the inappropriate waste disposal in dolines. Tus, all of those who went to the conference had the opportunity to have a general overview on the evolution of the Kras plateau, as well as understanding its complexity, management and need for preservation. In the afernoon the oral communications from the Te-matic Session 5 took place under the coordination of K.H. Kohler. Basically the papers presented had focused the geo-morphology in sandstone and quartzite (pseudokarst) regions with the exposition of works that prioritized the deriving use of the concepts and defnitions of the “classical karst” in regions where the development of caves took place silicateous rocks. More important than the discussion on the terminology was the intention of the authors in proving its hypotheses through well structuralized and coherent works, fact that is appropriate to the academic discussion of the role of geochemistry as a key factor in the development of a karstic relief (classic) or not. Te process of dissolution in detriment of the physical erosion was underlined, due to the premise that any rock is soluble, especially on tropical regions (water + heat). On Saturday, the participants were able to attend the conference “Brief considerations on the Brazilian Karstic Scenarios” given by K.H. Kohler, under a. Kranjc coordination. As we all know, Prof. Kohler dedicated more than 30 years of his life in the study of the Brazilian tropical karsts, especially on the Lagoa Santa Karst, a widely studied region in the 19th century due to its karstological, paleontological, archaeological and speleological importance. For him, the geomorphology contemplates the landscape in a spatial-time conception whose evolution (dynamic) in many ways is faster than the preventive intention of the man in conserve and preserve. Te origin of the Lagoa Santa´s endokarst retraces to the Jurassic/Cretacious, whereas the exokarst is shaped afer the Rio das Velhas initiates the notch of the South American Plate in the Plio-Pleistocene, already in the outcrops of carbonatic rocks, remodeling the karstic scenario until present times. An important anomaly in the current drainage system was also distinguished: the general drainage standard of the main river (Rio das Velhas) and its tributaries follows the N direction and, the Ribeirao da Mata is the only stream that fows in almost opposite direction, (Sw). Tis anomaly suggests that the Rio das Velhas had already occupied the current course of the Ribeirao da Mata, fowing northwest, originating the Lagoa Santa Karst (KOHLER, 2006). Trough images and cartographic documents, the participants were able to observe this anomaly fow as well as understanding the genesis of the Lagoa Santa Karst plateau. with the development of this Tematic Session, we could once more acknowledge the lack of researchers that are not necessarily speleologists that are interested on karst studies and its processes. Even with the insertion, for the frst time, of the thematic on Karst Geomorphology in an important national and international event, the number of papers submitted to us was still lower than the other papers sent to the other 13 Tematic Sessions. Tus, we believe that a bigger integration between the scholars from the physical studies and human studies of karstic areas is necessary, because only doing this we´ll contribute for an optimum development of the Brazilian karstology. It´s strongly recommended that, in the current stage of the karstological studies in Brazil, we started a systematic and detailed mapping of the Brazilian karstic areas, integrating those dedicated to the endokarst (speleologists) and those scientists of the exokarst (geomorpholo-gists). REFERENCES KRANJC. the Kras-Te Classical Karst (Slovenia-Italy). Goiânia: UFG, 2006. Lecture pronounced in VI the SINAGEO, Goiânia, 08/09/2006. KOHLER, H.C. Brief Consideraçoes on the Brazilian Cársticos Scenes. Goiânia: UFG, 2006. Lecture pronounced in VI the SINAGEO, Goiânia, 09/09/2006. Luiz Eduardo Panisset Travassos Heinz Charles Kohler Andrej Kranjc ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 171 REPORTS - POROčILA THE LONGEST HISTORY OF AN ICE CAVE – UNDER URAL? In the year 2005 an impressive book was published at Jekaterinburg by Mining Institute of Ural Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences at Perm - kungurskaja ledjanaja peščera: opit rezhimnih nabljudenij (kun-gur Ice Cave: monitoring experience), the frst Russian monograph dedicated to the detailed scientifc research of a cave, as is said in the introduction. It is nice hard bound book of 376 pages, ISBN 5-7691-1567-X. Te editor is well known Russian karstologist and speleologist v. n. Dubljanskij who co-ordinated the work of 16 authors. Beside Dubljanskij himself there are other specialists known in west too, O. I. Kadebskaja, V. N. Katajev, N. G. Maksimovič, and B. R. Mavljudov (see his paper in Acta carsologica 35/1), just to cite some examples. Te book includes 76 tables, 189 maps, plans, pictures, graphs and photos, among them 18 colour photos and ends by 461 references; with the exception of 16, they are all in Russian language. To emphasize the title of my report - the oldest reference is going back to the year 1730. Te book consists of two parts, the frst one presents the region where the cave is situated (northern part of the so called Ufa plateau, outside of the town of Kungur, on the bank of the Silva river, under the »Ice Mountain« hill) and the second part is dedicated exclusively to the cave itself. Te entrance to this nearly 6 km long cave lies 115 m above the sea level, but the climate of the region is severe: average winter temperature is -6.3° C, with mean minimum of -40°. Te average amount of precipitation is 500 mm (300 – 600) and evapotranspiration is 358 mm. It is self-understanding that the age of rocks of the Perm region is Permian, in this case Lower Permian with prevailing anhydrite and gypsum. Te second part - Kun-gur Ice Cave - has 13 chapters: history of investigation, methodology of data processing, morphology, hydroge-ology, hydrochemistry, microclimate, sediments, biology, experiments, changes and modifcations, geological history, speleogenesis, and tourist display. Tere are over 500 scientifc papers and publications related to Kungur Ice Cave. Te cave is known for more than 400 years, more than 100 years it is open for tourist visit, and in 2001 federal and local legislation proclaimed “Ice Mountain and Kungur Ice Cave” the “Historical and Natural Complex” extended over 106 ha. when famous Cossack’s Hetman Yermak advanced to Siberia he and his men spent the winter of 1578/1579 in Kungur Ice Cave. Te frst survey dates to 1703, 45 years earlier of Postojnska jama, and during the 18th century the entrance part was gypsum quarry while further inside numerous crosses and icons were placed. In 1948, crystallisation of the ice ceased and that is why Moscow University set up there a feld station. In 1949 there were already 30 monitoring points installed. In the period of 50 years the researchers gathered an enormous amount of diferent data and it is justifable to talk of a real data bank. In my opinion the most interesting results are related to the microclimate. Te amplitude of the air temperature is between - 9.7° and + 5.1° C, at some points it is permanently under 0°. From 1974 to 1994 the mean temperature in the cave was rising and since that year it is little by little falling. Te warm period prolonged from 1 to 8 month per year and the ice is melting more and more. Beside temperature researchers monitored humidity, air currents, air pressure, aerosols, composition of the air, condensation, and evaporation. In the cave diferent minerals were found and analysed such as gypsum, “gypsum rose”, celestine, selenite, cryogene gypsum, mirabil-ite, calcite, and diferent crystallisation of ice. Gypsum is much more soluble than limestone and therefore the collapses on the Ice Mountain above the cave are frequent. Tank to great number of diferent data the scientists were even able to correlate collapsing and lunar phases. Tourism which started very early, in 1840 there was a professional guide installed, also contributed to the general warming of the cave. In the 30-ies of the last century a new artifcial entrance was made to facilitate tourist visits and during the decennials tunnels were dug connecting diferent parts of the cave. So the microclimate conditions, due mostly to changed aeration, deteriorate 172 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 REPORTS - POROčILA a good deal. In 1957 an electric illumination reached far into the cave, to the Great Lake. In 2001 at the entrances iron grids were installed so that cold air can penetrate in the cave during the winter and helps to cool it. when leafng through the book I got the impression that this is maybe not just the frst book of such kind published in Russia, but that also elsewhere such books are very rare, treating a cave in such details and having so many data and so long observation period. Tis is not only the description of the Kungur Ice Cave and of the course of events in this ice cave. Te book contains many data and conclusions particularly which illustrate and help to understand the evolution of other ice caves. Even more, such a long and detailed series of so many elements can be useful at evaluating long-term changes in the greater space - the global change. I cannot help to regret that the language barrier still exists (maybe even increases nowadays) and that such an important book has little chance to reach an international signifcance and wide response in international karstological spheres, as it should deserve. It would be a good opportunity to unite the forces of researchers of different nations, to combine the money of more publishing houses - and publish the book simultaneously in Russian and in English. I warmly recommend to everybody who knows the Russian “azbuka” to glance through the book, and to others interested in ice caves, to look the illustrations. But I cannot recommend buying it for the personal library - edition is limited to 300 copies only. Andrej Kranjc ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 173 REPORTS - POROčILA ESSENTIAL SOURCES IN CAVE SCIENCE Graham S. Proudlove, editor essential Sources In Cave Science. A Guide to the Literature of Cave Science Cave Studies Series 16, 56 pp, A4, BCRA 2006 ISBN: 0-900-265-31-0 In the time when all information are at the tip of our fngers, an issue like this seems to be unnecessary. On the other hand, even an experienced scientist will fnd problems looking for the relevant sources out of the Google hits. Not to mention a caver, interested to a science related to his/her free time activity. An issue, where people from the forefront of a scientifc area guide the reader through the essential literature is most welcome. And this is exactly what this booklet does. Te science related to caves is broken down into 13 areas covered by one or more authors as follows: Geology by Dave Lowe, Geo-morphology by Tony waltham, Hydrology and Hydro-geology by Chris Groves, Chemistry by Simon Bottrell, Physics by David Gibson, Clark Friend, Phil Murphy & Tony waltham, Speleogenesis by Dave Lowe, minerals and Speleothems by Charlie Self, Paleoenvironments by Andy Baker, biology by Graham Proudlove, bats by John Altringham, Archeology and Paleontology by Andrew Chamberlain, Conservation and management by Graham Price, Speleology by Ric Hallivel. Each area is introduced with a brief - half to one page - description of what it does, its history and the present state-of-the art. A list of selected printed references follows, which normally include several tens of entries. Tese are up-to-date, sources include journal articles, monographs, book chapters from edited books, conference proceedings etc. A few lines of description is added to each entry and a tag G or B is given, denoting whether the source is of general interest or related to Great Britain and Ireland. Tree sources from the list are outlined to be most essential „for those seeking the quickest possible introduction“. Te list of printed sources is (not always) followed by the list of web based resources, which has - for obvious reasons - no ambitions to be complete. Last but not least is he list of periodicals publishing cave science. From my own experience I know that many readers will miss some entries, particularly in the area where one is actively involved. Probably this is exactly the area which you shouldn’t look for. Franci Gabrovšek 174 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 35/2 - 2006 Acta carsologica 35, 2 (2006) Izdala in založila Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti in Znanstvenoraziskovalni center SAZU v Ljubljani Grafčna priprava in tisk Tiskarna Lotos Postojna Naklada 700 izvodov ActA cArsologicA issn 0583-6050 • letnik/ Volume 35 • Številka/Number 2 • ljubljana 2006 Contents Articles Elery Hamilton-Smith: spatial planning and protection measures for Karst areas Neven Bočić, Aleksandar Lukić & Vuk Tvrtko Opačić: Management Models and Development of show caves as tourist Destinations in croatia Mélanie Duval: tourism and preservation policies in Karst areas: comparision betwen the Škocjan caves (slovenia) and the Ardeche gorge (France) Christophe Gauchon, Estelle Ployon, Jean-Jacques Delannoy, Sébastien Hacquard, Fabien Hobléa, Stéphane Jaillet & Yves Perrette: Te concepts of heritage and heritage resource applied to karsts: Protecting the choranche caves (Vercors, France) Fabiana Calo & Mario Parise: evaluating the Human Disturbance to Karst environments in southern italy Ugo Sauro: changes in the Use of Natural resources and Human impact in the Karst environments of the Venetian Prealps Ivana Fistanić: sustainable management of brackish Karst spring Pantan (croatia) Nataša Ravbar & Gregor Kovačič: Karst water management in slovenia in the frame of vulnerability mapping Miha Staut & Primož Auersperger: tracing of the stream fowing through the cave Ferranova buža, central slovenia Janja Kogovšek & Metka Petrič: tracer test on the Mala gora landfll near ribnica in south-eastern slovenia Martin Knez & Tadej Slabe: Dolenjska subsoil stone forests and other karst phenomena discovered during the construction of the Hrastje – lešnica motorway section Aleksander Klimchouk, Serdar Bayari, Lütf Nazik & Koray Törk: Glacial destruction of cave systems in high mountains, with a special reference to the Aladaglar massif, central taurus, turkey Bonnie A. B. Blackwell: electron spin resonance (esr) Dating in Karst environments Stephan Kempe, Hans-Peter Hubrich & Klaus Suckstorf: Te history of Postojnska Jama: Te 1748 Joseph Anton Nagel inscriptions in Jama near Predjama and Postojnska Jama Andrej Kranjc: Baltazar Hacquet (1739/40-1815), the Pioneer of Karst Geomorphologists ^WNSW 9770583605015