38 Planin{ec, J., ^agran, B. (2001). Determination of the motor types of younger children by classification… KinSI 7(1–2), 38–43 DETERMINATION OF THE MOTOR TYPES OF YOUNGER CHILDREN BY CLASSIFICATION INTO GROUPS DOLO^ANJE MOTORI^NIH TIPOV MLAJ[IH OTROK NA OSNOVI RAZVR[^ANJA V SKUPINE Jurij Planin{ec, Branka ^agran Abstract The purpose of the present study is to determine the motor types of younger children and find out the most important characteristics of the individual motor types. The children were 138 girls and 125 boys 5 years of age, from the city of Maribor and its surroun- dings. For the assessment of motor abilities twenty- eight tests were used. Ward’s hierarchical method was used for the classification of children into groups. Both genders have achieved similar results. On the basis of these results we conclude that for boys and girls the- re are three groups with the following characteristics: a) above-average general motor efficiency, c) below- average general motor efficiency, b) average general motor efficiency. For 5 year-old children it is prima- rily the general motor ability, defined by the informa- tional and energy components of movement, which has the most influence on the prevailing motor types. Results obtained in this way could help us to plan a transformational process within the framework of the sports activities, which is adapted to the needs of in- dividual groups of children. Key words: pre-school children, motor types, cluster analysis Izvle~ek Namen pri~ujo~e raziskave je dolo~iti motori~ne tipe mlaj{ih otrok in ugotoviti njihove najpomembnej{e zna~ilnosti. Vzorec obsega 138 deklic in 125 de~kov iz Maribora in okolice, starih 5 let. Za ugotavljanje motori~nih sposobnosti je uporabljenih osemindvaj- set testov. Za razvr{~anje otrok v skupine je uporab- ljena Wardova hierarhi~na metoda. Pri deklicah in pri de~kih smo dobili podobne rezultate. Na osnovi teh rezultatov ugotavljamo, da so se v obeh primerih ob- likovale tri skupine z naslednjimi zna~ilnostmi: a) nad- povpre~na v celotni motori~ni u~inkovitosti, c) pod- povpre~na v celotni motori~ni u~inkovitosti, b) povpre~na celotna motori~na u~inkovitost. Pri petlet- nih otrocih predvsem generalna motori~na sposob- nost, ki jo opredeljujeta informacijska in energijska komponenta gibanja, najpomembneje vpliva na pre- vladujo~e motori~ne tipe. Na temelju tako dobljenih rezultatov lahko v okviru {portnih dejavnosti na~rtu- jemo transformacijski proces, ki je prilagojen zna~il- nostim posameznih skupin otrok. Klju~ne besede: pred{olski otroci, motori~ni tipi, raz- vr{~anje v skupine (Received: 6. 09. 2001 – Accepted: 13. 12. 2001) Contact address Jurij Planin{ec University of Maribor – Pedagogical Faculty Koro{ka 160 SI-2000 Maribor Slovenia Phone: +386 2 229-36-00 Fax: +386 2 251-81-80 E-mail: Jurij.Planinsec@uni-mb.si 39 Planin{ec, J., ^agran, B. (2001). Determination of the motor types of younger children by classification… KinSI 7(1–2), 38–43 INTRODUCTION Classification into groups enables finding individuals with similar characteristics and placing them into groups accordingly. This process consists of breaking up the whole, more specifically, of breaking up a sam- ple of children into a small number of groups with common characteristics. In other words, it is a selec- tive formation of groups according to a chosen crite- rion. The criteria on the basis of which classification into groups is carried out can be various. The present study shows some of the indicators of the child’s motor ef- ficiency. The formation of groups according to this cri- terion enables us to determine the prevailing motor type for groups of younger children. The determination of motor types is one possible as- pect of the study of human motor abilities, which has a wide application. Motor types can be determined on the basis of human motor abilities. Some authors (Gallahue, & Ozmun, 1998; Schmidt, & Lee, 1999) find that there are several motor types, in which ba- sic locomotive, manipulative and stability abilities are intertwined and complement each other. Two studies on adults (Novak, 1981; Momirovi}, Ho- {ek, Metiko{, & Hofman, 1984), have determined that motor types are distinguished primarily on the basis of general motor ability. This ability is widely defined and involves the informational and energetic parts of mo- tor efficiency. In addition, there is a distinction bet- ween individuals with a more strongly marked ability of movement trajectories regulation and synergetic regulation and those with a more strongly marked re- gulation of intensity and duration of the energetic out- put. It therefore seems that in the classification of mo- tor types, the most important is the general motor ability, whereas the distinction between individuals with a better ability of movement coordination and those who are stronger is of smaller significance. So far we have no motor types determined specifically for children. The purpose of the present study is to determine mo- tor types of younger children and find out the most important characteristics of individual motor types. According to the developmental characteristics and the level of differentiation of motor abilities of smal- ler children (Pi{ot, 1997; Planin{ec, 1995; Rajtmajer, 1993; Thomas, & French, 1985), we can predict that the motor types in children will be defined more wi- dely than in adults. Many researchers (Momirovi} et al.; 1984; Bala, 1986) have established that the method of classifica- tion into groups is the appropriate procedure for de- termining motor types. There are several methods of classification into groups. The taxonomic analysis is a geometric method of classification into groups, but is in general only rarely used (Kati}, Zagorac, @ivi~njak, & Hraski, 1994; Momirovi} et al., 1984; Novak, 1981). The current study uses Ward’s hierarchical method of classification into groups. This method is considered more appropriate than other methods, because it enables a search for internally homogeneous and at the same time externally isolated groups - exactly what is required by a good method of classification (Ferligoj, 1989). Hierarchical methods of classification are often used, as they are simple and the final num- ber of groups does not have to be determined in ad- vance, but only after we get the results. Before the data analysis it is very hard to predict how many groups are in the structure of the data at our disposal. Therefore it is more appropriate to choose from seve- ral possible methods and use the simplest solution, which is both sensible and consistent with our re- search goals. A relatively big problem with preschool children is po- sed by the implementation of testing, which causes more complications at this age than with older sub- jects. Preschool children make a relatively great num- ber of mistakes on tests especially the more deman- ding motor tasks. It can be concluded that certain problems in the implementation of tasks by preschool children simply cannot be avoided. This has also been established by other authors (Rajtmajer, 1993; Zim- mer, 1981). Problems in the collection of data on mo- tor abilities of preschool children certainly have a di- rect effect on the test scores and require that the results should be treated with caution. METHODS Subjects. The children were 138 girls and 125 boys age 5 years, from the city of Maribor and its surroun- dings. The selection of children for the sample was random. 59 % of the children attended the kindergar- ten, whereas the others had other forms of child-care. The subjects are divided according to gender. In ad- dition, it has to be noted that their age is closely de- termined, because it is known that in preschool pe- riod there are significant differences in motor activities according to gender and age (Krombhloz, 1997; Mor- ris, Williams, Atwater, & Wilmore, 1982; Rajtmajer, 1993). All children were healthy in the time of the te- sting. Variables. For the assessment of motor abilities 28 tests were used (Rajtmajer, & Proje, 1990). The mo- tor tests were created especially for age group of preschool children and had been thoroughly verified in others studies (Rajtmajer, & Proje, 1990; Planin- {ec, 1995). The tests cover various motor abilities and belong to both the information and energy blocks. A 40 Planin{ec, J., ^agran, B. (2001). Determination of the motor types of younger children by classification… KinSI 7(1–2), 38–43 more detailed description of the tests is provided in Planin{ec (1995). • whole-body co-ordination (rolling the ball around the hoop - KKOTZO, walking on rungs backwards - KLILEN, walking through hoops backwards - KHOONA, polygon backward - KPOLNA, crawling under the bench - KPLAKL, crawling with a ball - KPLAZO, running after crawling - KTEKOT); • hand co-ordination (circling the ball around the body KROZOT, rolling the ball around the feet - KKOTZS, leading the ball with two hands in a stan- ding position - KUDARZ, building a tower from big foam rubber cubes - KOCPV7, insertion hollow cu- bes - KOCKVO, building a tower from small woo- den cubes - KOCLM8); • agility (stepping sideways - KBOTEK, running with changing directions - KTEKSS, running in a zigzag - KTEKCC); • explosive strength (standing long jump - EXMSDZ, standing triple jump - EXMSD3, standing high jump - EXMSVI); • repetitive strength (stepping on a bench - VDMK- LO, sideways jumps - VDMBPO, sideways jumps with hand support - VDMBPR); • speed of simple movements (hand tapping in two fields - HITAR1, foot tapping - HITTAN, hand tap- ping in 4 fields - HITAR2); • balance (standing on a block longitudinally - RSLKVV , standing on a block crosswise - RSLKVP , standing on a vertical block - RSPKVA). Procedure. The measurements of motor abilities were always carried out before noon in especially prepared rooms. The subjects carried out each test three times. The entire testing of one child did not exceed two hours. The measurement of motor abilities was carried out in the framework of the project The structure of and relations between psychomotor and cognitive abilities and social and morphological characteristics of presc- hool children (Rajtmajer, Praper, & Kancler, 1990), which is undertaken in cooperation between the Ma- ribor Faculty of Education and the Maribor Health cli- nic. Data analysis. The computer analysis of the data was carried out with the statistical package SPSS. Ward’s hierarchical method (Ward, 1963) was used for the classification of children into groups. According to this method, the classification of children into groups is based on the maximal internal similarities inside a group and maximal external differences among the groups. The formation of groups occurs at different levels, with the level of formation being proportiona- te to the measure of differences among the groups. The data was analysed separately according to gender. RESULTS The analysis of the data shows that the most appro- priate solution is the one with 3 groups, the one also given interpretation here. The determination of the group characteristics was carried out on the basis of the comparison of the means of the groups for each motor test. The results shown give the actual values (Tables 1 and 2). In girls, 16 were classified into group A, 68 into group B and 54 into group C. The comparison of the means of the 3 groups shows (Table 1) that on all the motor tests, with exception of EXMSVI and KKOTZS, the hig- hest results were achieved by the girls from group A, while the values of the means were lower in group B and the lowest in group C. The values of the means of group A are considerably higher with the variables VDMBPO, HITAR1, RSLKVV and RSLKVP , while the means of group C show significantly lower values with the variables EXMSD3, EXMSVI, KKOTZO, KOCKVO, KOCLM8, KPOLNA, KPLAZO, KTEKOT, KTEKSS and KTEKCC. Variables / Groups A B C Total EXMSDZ *** 98.6 87.8 72.9 83.2 EXMSD3 *** 279.7 251.5 209.7 238.4 EXMSVI *** 14.1 15.9 11.4 13.9 VDMKLO * 11.7 9.8 8.4 9.4 VDMBPO * 16.1 10.5 8.8 10.5 VDMBPR * 14.6 12.0 10.8 11.8 HITAR1 * 28.6 23.9 21.8 23.6 HITTAN * 22.5 19.9 18.5 19.7 HITAR2 * 12.9 11.4 9.6 10.8 RSLKVV ** 10.2 5.4 5.0 5.8 RSLKVP ** 5.6 3.4 3.3 3.6 RSPKVA ** 3.0 2.6 2.1 2.4 KROZOT * 18.2 16.8 14.9 15.9 KKOTZS * 7.4 5.9 6.0 6.1 KKOTZO ** 16.9 17.7 22.0 19.3 KOCKVO ** 19.3 19.7 23.6 21.2 KOCLM8 ** 10.7 11.7 14.5 12.6 KOCPV7 ** 11.6 14.4 16.2 14.8 KLILEN ** 9.9 11.1 12.9 11.7 KHOONA ** 10.8 12.7 15.8 13.7 KPOLNA ** 11.0 11.9 15.8 13.3 KPLAZO ** 14.7 18.4 24.6 20.4 KTEKOT ** 4.8 5.1 6.0 5.4 KTEKSS ** 8.4 8.5 9.4 8.8 KBOTEK ** 9.7 10.7 12.1 11.1 KTEKCC ** 8.3 8.5 9.4 8.8 KUDARZ * 18.1 14.2 12.1 13.8 KPLAKL ** 19.7 24.1 28.4 25.3 Table 1: Mean values of motor tests in girls (groups A, B, C and total) Note: * number of repetitions per 20 seconds; ** seconds; *** cen- timetres; 41 Planin{ec, J., ^agran, B. (2001). Determination of the motor types of younger children by classification… KinSI 7(1–2), 38–43 In boys, 75 were classified into group A, 41 into group B and 9 into group C. The comparison of the 3 groups shows that the highest values of the means are achie- ved in group A, lower values in group B and the lo- west in group C - on all the 28 motor tests (Table 2). The values of the means of group A are significantly higher than in other groups with the variables VDMBPO, VDMBPR, HITTAN, RSLKVV , RSLKVP , KPLAZO and KUDARZ. Conversely, the means of group C are significantly lower with the variables EXMSD3, EXMSVI, RSPKVA, KKOTZO, KLILEN, KHOONA, KPOLNA, KPLAKL, KTEKSS, KTEKCC and KOCPV7. DISCUSSION Both genders have achieved similar results. On the basis of these results we conclude that in both cases there are three groups with the following characteri- stics: a) above-average general motor efficiency, c) be- low-average general motor efficiency, b) average ge- neral motor efficiency. These findings show that all three groups are distin- guished primarily on the basis of general motor effi- ciency. This also confirms the prediction that motor abilities in preschool children are not yet so differen- tiated as to be able to influence the formation of spe- cific motor types, contrary to what is the case in adults (Momirovi} et al., 1984; Novak, 1981). It is obvious that in 5 year-old children it is primarily the general motor ability, defined by the informational and ener- getic components of movement, which has the most influence on the prevailing motor types. The results undoubtedly show that the differentiation of motor abilities in 5-year children is not completed, i.e. children are in a dynamic development phase, which does not enable the differentiation of abilities, otherwise characteristic of adults (Noth, 1994). The process of differentiation develops from general, glo- bal abilities toward more specific abilities. Obviously, this direction is also reflected in motor development. Human motor behaviour is regulated by complex functional mechanisms of the central nervous system. Studies of onto-genesis show that the most develo- ped areas of the central nervous system, which are responsible for the highest forms of human behavi- our, including motor abilities, do not reach maturation until the period between the ages of 7 and 12 (Luria, 1983). A more detailed comparison of the means of indivi- dual groups shows that for girls, group C differed from the others more significantly mainly by attaining lower values on the tests of the coordination of movement, which belong to the informational block, and on two tests of explosive strength. Therefore, group C is cha- racterised by a lower ability of the co-ordination of movement. This ability is mostly dependent on the mechanisms for the structuring of movement, which, in turn, plays a dominant role in the general motor efficiency of younger children (Strel, & [turm, 1981). It is thus not surprising that the average test scores from group C are the lowest on all the motor tests. Li- kewise, the tests for measuring explosive strength have significant correlations with many other motor tests in the preschool period (Pi{ot, 1997; Planin{ec, 1995; Rajtmajer, 1993), mainly with the tests for measuring the coordination of movement. Explosive strength is thus important for the general motor efficiency, which is reflected in a negative way in group C. On the other hand, group A characteristically differs from others with better results on two tests of balan- ce, jumping sideways and hand tapping. This shows that group A is characterised by better balance, repe- titive strength and the speed of simple movement. The tests of balance were the most difficult for 5-year- olds. It is a fact that balance tasks are very demanding Variables / Groups A B C Total EXMSDZ *** 87,2 77,8 64,0 82,5 EXMSD3 *** 249,8 225,4 188,0 237,4 EXMSVI *** 14,4 13,1 9,6 13,6 VDMKLO * 9,8 8,4 7,4 9,2 VDMBPO * 11,2 8,4 7,0 10,0 VDMBPR * 13,0 9,8 9,0 11,7 HITAR1 * 23,7 19,2 16,3 21,7 HITTAN * 19,9 16,9 15,2 18,6 HITAR2 * 10,5 9,6 7,8 10,0 RSLKVV ** 6,6 4,4 3,2 5,6 RSLKVP ** 4,2 2,9 2,1 3,6 RSPKVA ** 2,5 2,2 1,7 2,3 KROZOT * 16,4 13,9 14,5 15,4 KKOTZS * 6,2 5,5 5,2 5,9 KKOTZO ** 17,1 19,7 26,7 18,7 KOCKVO ** 19,7 23,8 27,3 21,6 KOCLM8 ** 11,6 14,1 16,1 12,7 KOCPV7 ** 12,9 14,8 19,5 14,0 KLILEN ** 11,7 12,4 18,9 12,4 KHOONA ** 11,3 13,3 18,4 12,5 KPOLNA ** 10,6 12,8 18,9 11,9 KPLAZO ** 14,9 19,8 23,2 17,1 KTEKOT ** 4,8 5,5 6,6 5,1 KTEKSS ** 8,5 9,2 11,2 8,9 KBOTEK ** 10,9 12,8 13,9 11,8 KTEKCC ** 8,3 9,0 13,4 8,9 KUDARZ * 14,7 11,5 10,2 13,3 KPLAKL ** 20,4 26,1 34,8 23,3 Table 2: Mean values of motor tests in boys (groups A, B, C and total) Note: * number of repetitions per 20 seconds; ** seconds; *** centimetres 42 Planin{ec, J., ^agran, B. (2001). Determination of the motor types of younger children by classification… KinSI 7(1–2), 38–43 for the children of that age. They are also influenced by other motor abilities, which is the reason the chil- dren from the group with the highest level of motor efficiency were the most successful on these tests. There are findings that the test of repetitive strength and the speed of movement are connected and also dependent on the ability of coordinated rhythmical movement (Planin{ec, 1995; Rajtmajer, 1993). This is a complex ability (Roth, & Winter, 1994), which is better developed in children with a better motor ef- ficiency. The same is true for boys. In group C the values of means are particularly low for several tests of the co- ordination of movement and two tests of explosive strength. Here we also conclude that the lower gene- ral motor efficiency is the result of a lower ability of movement structuring. The influence of explosive strength on the general motor efficiency is the same as in girls. Group A is characterized by better results on two tests of balance, two tests of jumping side- ways, leading the ball and foot tapping. On the basis of these facts we conclude that this group is distin- guished by better abilities of the speed of simple mo- vement, repetitive strength and balance, similarly as in girls. Group B of both genders has means placed between the other two groups for almost all tests. The above findings show that the greatest influence on the determination of motor types in 5-year-olds co- mes from general motor ability. The motor type of group A is, in addition to having a better general mo- tor efficiency, particularly characterized by better ba- lance, repetitive strength and the speed of simple mo- vement. On the other hand, the motor type of group C is, in addition to having a lower general motor effi- ciency, characterized by a lower ability of the coordi- nation of movement and explosive strength. There is also the motor type of group B, which has average motor efficiency and does not stand out through any motor ability. In the classification into groups there are no significant differences between the genders. However, the re- sults show that girls achieve a bit higher mean values, except in the case of test tasks demanding co-ordina- ted movement of the whole body, where boys nor- mally show better performance. It is known that the- re are small differences in motor efficiency between the genders in the preschool period, which are cau- sed not by biological factors but primarily by the so- cial environment (Thomas, & French, 1985). The dif- ferences between the genders are to a great extent a consequence of the differences in movement activi- ties, which are typically chosen by boys and girls (Gal- lahue, & Ozmun, 1998). On the basis of classification of younger children in- to groups with Ward’s method we can determine the characteristics of the prevailing motor types. Such a methodological approach to classification can be ap- plied in different ways. Results obtained in this way could help us to plan a transformational process wit- hin the framework of the various sports activities, which is adapted to the needs of individual groups of children. In addition, this kind of classification into groups could be used in detecting accelerated or slow motor development of children. Similar suggestions can be found in some other studies using a different method of classification into groups (Kati} et al., 1994). However, not sufficiently defined motor types yielded by other methods of classifica- tion into groups could hardly be used as a basis for a program of transformational process. From this pers- pective, Ward’s classification into groups has the ad- vantage of giving useful results which can easily be transferred into practice, which is more than can be claimed for other methods. And this is particularly true with regard to the age group of younger children. REFERENCES 1. Bala, G. (1986). Logi~ke osnove metoda za analizu podataka iz iz- tra`ivanja u fizi~koj kulturi [Logical foundation of data analysis met- hods in physical education]. Novi Sad: published by the author. 2. Ferligoj, A. (1989). Razvr{~anje v skupine [Classification into groups]. Ljubljana: Raziskovalni in{titut FSPN. 3. Gallahue, D.L., & Ozmun, J.C. (1998). Understanding motor deve- lopment: Infants, children, adolescents, adults. Boston: WCB/Mc- Graw-Hill. 4. Kati}, R., Zagorac, N., @ivi~njak, M., & Hraski, @. (1994). Taxono- mic analysis of morphological/motor characteristics in seven-year old girls. Collegium Antropologicum, 18(1), 141-154. 5. Krombholz, H. (1997). Physical performance in relation to age, sex, social class and sports activities in kindergarten and elementary school. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 84(3), 1168-1170. 6. Lurija, A.R. (1983). Osnovi neuropsihologije [Foundations of neu- ropsychology]. Beograd: Nolit. 7. Momirovi}, K., Ho{ek, A., Metiko{, D., & Hofman, E. (1984). Tak- sonomska analiza motori~kih sposobnosti [Taxonomic analysis of motor abilities]. Kineziologija 16(2): 115-132. 8. Morris, A. M., Williams, A. E., Atwater A. E., & Wilmore, J. H. (1982). Age and sex differences in motor performance of 3 through 6 year-old children. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 53(3), 214-221. 9. Noth, J. (1994). Entwicklung neurophysiologischer Parameter der Motorik [Development of neuropsychological parameters of moto- rics]. In J. Baur, K. Bös, & R. Singer (Eds.), Motorische Entwicklung [Motor development] (pp. 93-105). Schorndorf: Verlag Hofmann. 10. Novak, N. (1981). Komparativna analiza nekaterih taksonomskih metod za odrejanje taksonomskih skupin na osnovi motori~nih zna- ~ilnosti [Comparative analysis of some taxonomic methods for de- termining taxonomic groups based on motor abilities]. Doctoral dissertation, Ljubljana: Univerza Edvarda Kardelja v Ljubljani, Vi- soka {ola za telesno kulturo. 11. Pi{ot, R. (1997). Model motori~nega prostora {estinpolletnih otrok pred parcializacijo morfolo{kih zna~ilnosti in po njej [Model of mo- tor space of six-and-a-half year old children before and after par- tialisation of morphologic characteristics]. Doctoral dissertation, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za {port. 43 Planin{ec, J., ^agran, B. (2001). Determination of the motor types of younger children by classification… KinSI 7(1–2), 38–43 12. Planin{ec, J. (1995). Relacije med nekaterimi motori~nimi in kog- nitivnimi sposobnostmi petletnih otrok [Relations between some motor and cognitive abilities of five year old children]. Master's thesis, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za {port. 13. Rajtmajer, D. (1993). Komparativna analiza psihomotori~ne struk- ture de~kov in deklic, starih 5-5,5 let [Comparative analysis of the psychomotor structure of boys and girls five to five-and-a-half years old]. [port 41(4): 36-40. 14. Rajtmajer, D., & Proje, S. (1990). Analiza zanesljivosti in faktorska struktura kompozitnih testov za spremljanje in vrednotenje moto- ri~nega razvoja pred{olskih otrok [Analysis of the reliability and factor structure of composite tests for monitoring and evaluating motor development of preschool children]. [port, 38(1-2): 48-51. 15. Rajtmajer, D., Praper, P., & Kancler, K. (1990). Struktura in relaci- je psihomotori~nih in kognitivnih sposobnosti ter socialnih in mor- folo{kih karakteristik pred{olskih otrok [Structure and relations bet- ween psychomotor and cognitive abilities, social and morphologic characteristics of preschool children]. Maribor: RSS. 16. Roth, K., Winter, R. (1994). Entwicklung koordinativer Fähigkei- ten [Development of co-ordinative abilities]. In Baur J., Bös K., & Singer R. (Eds.), Motorische entwicklung [Motor development] (pp. 191-216). Schorndorf: Verlag Hofmann. 17. Schmidt, R.A., & Lee, T.D. (1999). Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis. Champaign: Human Kinetics. 18. Strel, J., & [turm, J. (1981). Zanesljivost in struktura nekaterih mo- tori~nih sposobnosti in morfolo{kih zna~ilnosti {est in pol letnih u~encev in u~enk [Reliability and structure of some motor abilities and morphologic characteristics of six-and-a-half year old male and female children]. Ljubljana: Visoka {ola za telesno kulturo. 19. Thomas J.R., & French, K.E. (1985). Gender differences across age in motor performance: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 260-282. 20. Ward, J.H. (1963). Hierarchical grouping to optimize on objecti- ve function. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 58(1), 226-244. 21. Zimmer, R. (1981). Motorik und Persönlichkeitentwicklung bei Kin- dern im Vorschulalter [Development of motorics and personality characteristics of preschool children]. Schorndorf: Verlag Hof- mann.