Psihološka obzorja / Horizons of Psychology, 26, 89–97 (2017)
© Društvo psihologov Slovenije, ISSN 2350-5141
Znanstveni empiričnoraziskovalni prispevek / Scientific empirical article
* Naslov/Address: izr. prof. dr. Mojca Juriševič, Oddelek za temeljni pedagoški študij, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Kardeljeva 
ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, e-mail: mojca.jurisevic@pef.uni-lj.si
Članek je licenciran pod pogoji Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence. (CC-BY licenca).
The article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY license).
DOI: 10.20419/2017.26.472
CC: 2223
UDK: 159.923.072
Measuring time attitudes in Slovenia: Psychometric proprieties of 
the Adolescent and Adult Time Attitude Scale (AATI-TA)
Mojca Juriševič*1, Frank C. Worrell2, and Zena R. Mello3
1Department of Education Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
2Faculty of Education, University of California, Berkeley, USA
3Psychology, College of Science and Engineering, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, USA
Abstract: In the present study, we examined the psychometric properties of scores on the newly developed Slovenian version of 
the Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory-Time Attitudes Scale (AATI-TA) in a sample of 182 Slovenian adolescents. The 30-item 
AATI-TA assesses positive and negative attitudes towards the past, present, and the future. Time attitudes are particularly important 
in adolescence due to their association with various educational and psychological outcomes. The AATI-TA is a robust instrument 
and AATI-TA scores have already been validated in several national contexts worldwide. Due to language differences between 
Slovene and English, a 24-item version of the AATI-TA was examined in Slovenia. As hypothesized, scores on the 24-item Slovenian 
version of AATI-TA were internally consistent and structurally valid. Moreover, meaningful correlations between time attitudes and 
positivity, a basic disposition determining individual well-being, provided evidence of concurrent validity. The results suggest that 
the Slovenian version of the AATI-TA will be useful in Slovenian research examining time attitudes.
Keywords: Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory-Time Attitudes Scale AATI-TA, adolescence, time perspective, positivity, 
validation
Merjenje stališč do časa v Sloveniji: psihometrične značilnosti 
Inventarja o času za mladostnike in odrasle – Lestvica stališč 
do časa (AATI-TA)
Mojca Juriševič*1, Frank C. Worrell2 in Zena R. Mello3
1Oddelek za temeljni pedagoški študij, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani
2Faculty of Education, University of California, Berkeley, USA
3Psychology, College of Science and Engineering, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, USA
Povzetek: V raziskavi smo ugotavljali psihometrične značilnosti slovenske različice inštrumenta Inventar o času za mladostnike in 
odrasle – Lestvica stališč do časa (AATI-TA) na vzorcu 182 slovenskih mladostnikov. Lestvica vsebuje pozitivna in negativna stališča 
do preteklosti, sedanjosti in prihodnosti. Ta stališča so še posebej pomembna za obdobje mladostništva, saj so povezana z različnimi 
izobraževalnimi in psihološkimi izidi. AATI-TA je robusten instrument, ki je že bil validiran v različnih nacionalnih kontekstih 
po vsem svetu. Kot je bilo predpostavljeno, so bili slovenski rezultati notranje konsistentni in strukturno veljavni. Lestvica stališč 
je izkazala tudi ustrezno sočasno veljavnost, saj se je pokazala smiselna povezanost med stališči do časa in pozitivnostjo; slednja 
je opredeljena kot dispozicija, ki določa posameznikovo blagostanje. Rezultati kažejo, da bo slovenska različica AATI-TA koristen 
inštrument za raziskovanje stališč do časa.
Ključne besede: Inventar o času za mladostnike in odrasle – Lestvica stališč do časa AATI-TA, časovna perspektiva, mladostništvo, 
pozitivnost, validacija
90
Constructs related to time have been implicated in 
psychological functioning for more than seven decades 
(Andretta, Worrell, & Mello, 2014; Frank, 1939; Lewin, 1942). 
However, much of the research has focused on constructs 
related to the future, such as hope (Snyder, Lopez, Shorey, 
Rand, & Feldman, 2003), optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985) 
and perceived life chances (Jessor, Donovan, & Costa, 1990). 
In 1999, Zimbardo and Boyd reminded researchers that time 
consists of three periods – past, present, and future – and 
noted that researchers should assess all three periods to get a 
complete understanding of an individual’s time perspective. 
These researchers introduced the Zimbardo Time Perspective 
Inventory (ZTPI) that provided scores related to all three 
periods, but psychometric properties of ZTPI scores have 
varied tremendously across studies (Sircova et al., 2014; 
Worrell & Mello, 2007; Worrell, Temple et al., 2016), perhaps 
due to the fact that the subscales assess other constructs (e.g., 
fatalism, hedonism, planning) in addition to time (Crockett, 
Weinman, Hankins, & Marteau, 2009; Worrell, Mello, & Buhl, 
2013). In 2007, Mello and Worrell developed the Adolescent 
Time Inventory (ATI), a multidimensional instrument that 
assessed individuals’ perceptions of time. The ATI included 
measures of time meaning (ATI-TM), time frequency (ATI-
TF), time orientation (ATI-TO), time relation (ATI-TR), and 
time attitudes (ATI-TA; Mello & Worrell, 2015). The current 
study focused on time attitudes. 
To date, most of the research with the ATI has used the 
time attitude subscales, which assess positive and negative 
attitudes toward each of the three time periods, and there 
have been extensive psychometric analysis of the time 
attitude scores on Adolescent Time Inventory (ATI-TA). 
Researchers have found ATI-TA scores to be reliable and 
structurally valid in adolescent samples in several national 
contexts, including China (Ling, Xu, Worrell, & Mello, 2014), 
Germany (Buhl & Lindner, 2009; Worrell et al., 2013), Iran 
(Mello, Rashid, Worrell, & Fathi, 2014), Japan (Chisima, 
Murakami, Worrell, & Mello, 2016), New Zealand (Alansari, 
Worrell, Rubie-Davies, & Webber, 2013), Turkey (Şahin-
Baltaci, Tagay, Worrell, & Mello, 2017), the United Kingdom 
(McKay, Cole, Percy, Worrell, & Mello, 2015), and the United 
States (Worrell et al., 2013).
Moreover, in two recent studies, ATI-TA scores have 
been shown to be reliable and structurally valid in samples 
of young adults attending college (Cole, Andretta, & 
McKay, 2017; Mello et al., 2016), as well as middle and older 
adults (Mello et al., 2016), leading the authors to rename 
the instrument the Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory 
(AATI). The goal of the current study was to examine the 
psychometric properties of scores on a Slovenian version of 
the AATI-TA. More specifically, we examined the internal 
consistency, structural validity, and concurrent validity of 
the scores to ascertain if AATI-TA scores can be useful in 
understanding adolescent and adult functioning in Slovenia. 
We begin with a brief overview of the AATI-TA and research 
using the instrument.
The Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory-Time 
Attitude scales
The AATI-TA consists of six 5-item subscales assessing 
Past Positive, Past Negative, Present Positive, Present 
Negative, Future Positive, and Future Negative attitudes. 
Alpha and omega reliability estimates for scores on the past 
and present subscales have ranged from .72 to .95 across 
13 countries (Chisima et al., 2016; McKay et al., 2015; 
Şahin-Baltaci et al., 2017; Worrell, Mello, & International 
Collaborators, 2015). Future Positive scores have generally 
been in the same range, except for Iran (Farsi; α = .64, ω = 
.65) and Albania (Albanian; α = .61, ω = .68; Worrell, 2016). 
Reliability estimates for Future Negative scores have been the 
most variable. Although reliability estimates for these scores 
have been > .70 in many countries (Worrell, 2016), they have 
been in the .60 range in the United Kingdom (α = .61, McKay 
et al., 2015), Nigeria (α = .64, Finan et al., 2012), and Peru (α = 
.62, Worrell et al., 2015), and have been below .50 in Albania 
(α = .39, ω = .60), Italy (α = .43, ω = .62), and Turkey (α = .53, 
ω = .53, Şahin-Baltaci et al., 2017; Worrell et al., 2015).
The six-factor theoretical structure has been supported 
on the basis of confirmatory factor analyses using both 
maximum-likelihood and weighted least squares estimation 
in the 11 countries in which it has been examined (Chisima 
et al., 2016; McKay et al., 2015; Şahin-Baltaci et al., 2017; 
Worrell et al., 2015), despite the reliability issues with 
Future Negative scores. Additionally, scores on the AATI-
English show scalar invariance across gender (Worrell, 
McKay, & Andretta, 2017), configural invariance across a 
three-year time period in early adolescence (Worrell et al., 
2017), configural invariance across early, middle, and older 
adulthood (Mello et al., 2016), and scalar invariance for five 
of the six subscales (excluding Future Negative) across early 
and middle adulthood (Mello et al., 2016).
There has also been evidence supporting the convergent 
and discriminant validity of AATI-TA scores. Worrell 
and Mello (2009) reported that AATI-TA scores were not 
meaningfully related (i.e., r ≤ .30, indicative of a small effect 
size) to age, grade point average, or academic self-concept. 
However, AATI-TA scores were meaningfully related to 
several time constructs (e.g., state hope, perceived life 
chances, optimism, expectation of future success) and to 
other important constructs (e.g., global self-esteem, perceived 
stress). Alansari et al. (2013) reported similar findings; they 
found that AATI-TA scores were not related to academic 
achievement, cutting school, and academic self-ranking, but 
the scores were related to attitudes to school and teacher. In 
Cole et al.’s (2017) study of British adults, AATI-TA scores on 
the positive subscales were negatively related to anxiety and 
depression (-.41 ≤ r ≤ .23), scores on the negative subscales 
were positively related to depression (.25 ≤ r ≤ .41), but no 
scores were associated with problematic alcohol use (-.11 ≤ 
r ≤ .13).
M. Juriševič, F. C. Worrell, and Z. R. Mello
91
Although correlates of AATI-TA scores are interesting, one 
goal of developing a multidimensional scale assessing past, 
present and future attitudes is to examine profiles based on 
all of the subscales, as Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) suggested. 
Several researchers have used either cluster analysis or latent 
profile analysis to identify time attitude profiles based on the 
six subscales. Several profiles have been found, including 
Positives, Optimists, Balanced, Ambivalents, Negatives, and 
Pessimists. Importantly, individuals with different profiles 
differ meaningfully on outcomes, with more positive profiles 
associated with more adaptive outcomes, including life 
satisfaction, mental health, and academic success (Alansari 
et al., 2013; Andretta et al., 2014; Buhl & Lindner, 2009; Cole 
et al., 2017; McKay, Percy, Cole, Worrell, & Andretta, 2016; 
Prow, Worrell, Andretta, & Mello, 2016. These differences 
across profiles have been found in Germany, New Zealand, 
the UK, and the US.
The current study
As the literature reviewed above indicates, AATI-TA 
scores have been found to be reliable and valid in several 
different countries. These scores have also been found to yield 
interpretable time attitude profiles, which result in differe-
nces on a variety of psychological constructs. The findings, 
to date, suggest that time attitudes may be useful constructs to 
look at in different national contexts, providing the rationale 
for this study. Although there is interest in conducting research 
on time constructs in Slovenia, ZTPI scores have not held up 
psychometrically in Slovenia (Worrell et al., 2016). 
The goal of the current study was to develop a Slovenian 
version of AATI-TA and assess the internal consistency, 
structural validity, and concurrent validity of the scores in 
a sample of adolescents in Slovenia. We hypothesized that 
(a) AATI-TA Slovenian scores would be internally consistent 
with estimates of .70 or higher and (b) that the six-factor 
model supported in other national contexts (e.g., Alansari 
et al., 2013; Buhl & Lindner, 2009; Chisima et al., 2016; 
McKay et al., 2015; Şahin-Baltaci et al., 2017; Worrell et al., 
2013) would yield the best fit to the data with fit indices in 
the acceptable range or higher. With regard to concurrent 
validity, we hypothesized that positive time attitude subscales 
would have statistically and practically significant positive 
correlations with the Positivity Scale and that negative 
subscales would have statistically and practically significant 
negative correlations with the Positivity Scale (Caprara et al., 
2012). The Positivity Scale assesses “a general tendency to 
evaluate self, life, and future in a positive way” (i.e. as an 
interplay among self-esteem, life satisfaction, and optimism; 
Heikamp et al., 2014, p. 140).
Method
Participants
Participants consisted of a convenience sample of 182 
students (64% female; Mage = 20.17, SDage = 2.20), eight of 
whom did not report age and gender. Seventy-six percent of 
the sample were from urban high schools in four Slovenian 
cities (n = 133; Mage = 17.05, SDage = 1.66) and 24% were from 
two university programmes at the University of Ljubljana (n 
= 41; Mage = 23.29, SDage = 2.73). 
Instruments
In addition to the time attitude and positivity scales used 
in the study, participants were asked to self-report on three 
demographic variables: age, sex, and educational level.
Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory-Time Attitudes. 
The AATI-TA is one of the five components of the larger AATI 
battery, which also includes time meaning, time frequency, 
time orientation, and time relation, and was used to measure 
students’ attitudes towards time (Mello & Worrell, 2015). 
The AATI-TA English consists of six 5-item subscales: Past 
Positive, Past Negative, Present Positive, Present Negative, 
Future Positive, and Future Negative. Responses are on a 5-
point Likert scale (1 = Totally Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = 
Neutral, 4 = Agree, 5 = Totally Agree) with higher scores 
indicating a greater endorsement of the attitude. No items are 
negatively worded, and subscale scores are calculated as a 
mean of the five items.
The Slovenian version of AATI-TA (Mello, Worrell, 
Musil, Živkovič, & Juriševič, 2017) was developed through 
a five-stage translation procedure using a team approach, 
based on the principles and strategies for translation proposed 
by Brislin (1986) and other authors (e.g., Cha, Kim, & Erlen, 
2007; Harkness, Villar, & Edwards, 2010; Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik 
& Harkness, 2005). In the first stage, AATI-TA items 
were translated using parallel translation by two Slovenian 
researchers fluent in English and familiar with the domain 
of the study. In the second stage, both translators and a 
third independent Slovenian researcher discussed the first 
two drafts and came to consensus on the third draft. In the 
third stage, one of the translators met with an author of the 
original AATI-TA to discuss the translation and reconcile 
any discrepancies. At this meeting, the Slovenian researcher 
reported that four words used in AATI-TA to express positive 
attitudes in English (i.e., satisfied, content, happy, and pleased) 
are meaningfully translated by a single word in Slovenian 
language (i.e., zadovoljen), which resulted in several items 
being identical. It was decided at this stage to still include 
all 30 items and to ask respondents to comment on the items 
after they completed them. 
In Stage 4, a pilot study was carried out and respondents 
reported that items were clear but 31% of the respondents 
commented negatively on the identically worded items and 
complained that there are too many similar items in the 
questionnaire. On the basis of their feedback and the results 
of reliability analyses, we excluded 6 of the 30 items from 
the Slovene version of AATI-TA, that is, one item from each 
subscale. Excluded items were either redundant with another 
item (e.g., Item 11: Zadovoljen sem s svojo sedanjostjo / I 
am pleased with the present with Item 14: Zadovoljen sem 
s svojo sedanjostjo / I am content with the present, or Item 
5.: Zadovoljen sem s svojim trenutnim življenjem / I am 
happy with my current life) and had the lowest contribution 
to internal consistency among items from the same subscale. 
Thus, the content equivalence between the original and the 
translated version was maintained after excluding items 3, 
6, 8, 11, 16, and 28. The 24-item Slovenian version of the 
Measuring time attitudes in Slovenia
92
AATI-TA and the list of excluded items are provided in the 
Appendix (Table 5).
The Positivity Scale. The Positivity (P) scale (Caprara 
et al., 2012) was used as a measure of “the respondents’ 
tendency to view and address life and experiences with a 
positive outlook” (p. 710). The scale consists of 8-items that 
load on a single latent factor. Responses are on a 5-point 
Likert scale from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly 
Agree, with greater scores indicating more positive outlook. 
Item 6 (i.e., “At times, the future seems unclear to me”) is 
reverse-scored, and the scale score consists of the mean of 
the eight items. Caprara et al. reported adequate internal 
consistency (.75 ≤ α ≤ .79) for the scores and adequate test-
retest reliability (females = .69; males = .73) over a 5-week 
period. They also reported scalar invariance across gender 
and configural invariance across nationality (Italy, Japan, 
Spain, and the United States). Convergent and discriminant 
validity evidence was established through correlations with 
self-esteem, life-satisfaction, and optimism, depression, and 
the Big Five, and scores were not meaningfully related to 
age.
Juriševič (2015) translated the P-scale into Slovene with 
the permission of the authors. In a Slovenian sample of 
746 adolescents (Mage = 16.80, SDage = 1.16), scores on the 
translated P scale had a similar factor structure and internal 
consistency (α = .81) as reported by Caprara et al. (2012; see 
also Heikamp et al., 2014) and the descriptive statistics were 
also similar.
Procedure
E-versions of AATI-TA and P-scale were prepared and 
sent to high schools and university students after the consent 
to collaborate in the study, using the 1CS, which is a Slovenian 
open source application for online surveys. High school 
students completed both instruments during their regular 
classes, whereas university students were contacted directly 
by faculty’s internal network and completed both instruments 
individually. All data were collected over a 2-week period 
from January to February in 2017. Parental consent for minors 
was not requested because anonymity of the respondents 
was guaranteed in accordance with the purpose of the study. 
Data were analysed using the statistical software packages 
SPSS v23 (IBM Corporation, 2016) and Mplus 7 (Muthén 
& Muthén, 1998–2012). As data were missing on relatively 
few AATI-TA, missing data were not replaced and analyses 
were conducted with 169 participants for the AATI and 171 
participants for the P-scale.
Results
Preliminary analyses
Table 1 contains the means and standard deviations 
for scores on the AATI-TA Slovenian subscales and the P-
scale, as well as coefficients of skewness and kurtosis. As 
can be seen, means ranged from 2.15 to 3.73, with means on 
the positive subscales generally higher than means on the 
negative subscales, in keeping with the extant literature. None 
of the scores was substantially skewed or lepto-/platykurtic. 
Alpha reliability estimates based on raw scores as well as a 
95% confidence interval are also reported in Table 1. These 
coefficients ranged from .75 to .91, with Future Negative 
having the lowest coefficient. Internal consistency estimates 
were also examined by gender and all but one – Future 
Negative scores in females (.67) – were > .80.
When the alpha estimates for Positivity scores were 
calculated, Item 6 had a negative correlation with the total 
score, and was eliminated from further analyses. The alpha 
estimate for Positivity scores based on the seven items was 
high (see Table 1). We also examined the structural validity of 
the model based on seven items and results were supportive of 
the scale. Factor coefficients ranged from .77 to .90, and three 
of the four fit indices were in the excellent range: comparative 
fit index (CFI) = .979, Tucker Lewis index (TLI) = .968, root 
mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .099 (90% 
CI: .061–.138), and the standardized root mean square residual 
(SRMR) = .023. As the elimination of a poorly-contributing 
item from a scale can inflate the alpha coefficient, we used 
the seven factor coefficients to calculate omega, another 
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for Adolescent Time Inventory-Time Attitude Scores and for P-Scale in a Slovenian sample
M SD Skew (SE) Kurtosis (SE) α 95% CI (α) ωh
Past Positive 3.73 0.78 –0.77
(0.182)
0.99
(0.361)
.85 .81–.88 .86
Past Negative 2.22 0.93 0.71
(0.181)
–0.18
(0.359)
.89 .86–.91 .89
Present Positive 3.56 0.80 –0.48
(0.181)
0.16
(0.359)
.89 .86–.92 .89
Present Negative 2.49 0.88 0.44
(0.182)
–0.24
(0.361)
.86 .82–.89 .86
Future Positive 3.74 0.77 –0.68
(0.183)
0.81
(0.363)
.91 .89–.93 .91
Future Negative 2.15 0.78 0.72
(0.182)
0.41
(0.362)
.75 .69–.81 .77
Positivitya 3.64 0.63 –0.26
(0.187)
0.67
(0.373)
.85 .81–.88 .95
Note. CI = confidence interval. Omega estimates are based on the coefficients from the six-factor model, which are reported in Table 3.
M. Juriševič, F. C. Worrell, and Z. R. Mello
93
estimate of internal consistency, and this value was also quite 
high (see Table 1).
Intercorrelations among the AATI-TA scores are reported 
in Table 2. As has been seen in previous research, scores on 
subscales with the same valence were positively correlated and 
scores on subscales with the opposite valence were negatively 
correlated. Also as in previous research, past subscales had 
higher correlations with present subscales than with future 
subscales. Males and females did not report significantly 
different mean scores on any of the six AATI-TA subscales or 
on the P-scale (p > .07), with the largest difference being .27 
on Future Negative in favour of females (Hedges g = .36).
Major analyses
As the AATI-TA is a well-established model with 
substantial research support, confirmatory factor analyses 
were used to examine structural validity. As recommended, 
viable alternative models were also examined (Byrne, 2012; 
Thompson, 2004). The first model was the hypothesized 6-
factor model. Model 2 was a 3-factor model representing 
the three time periods – past, present, and future. Model 3 
was a 2-factor model representing positive and negative 
subscales. Several indices were used to assess model fit, 
including the CFI, TLI, RMSEA and its 90% confidence 
interval, and SRMR. CFI and TLI values ≥ .90 are considered 
acceptable and values ≥ .95 are considered excellent (Byrne, 
2012; Marsh, Hau & Wen, 2004). For the indices of misfit, 
that is, the RMSEA and SRMR, values ≤ .08 are considered 
acceptable and values ≤ .05 are considered excellent. The 
maximum-likelihood estimator (MLM) with Satorra-Bentler 
robust standard errors (Satorra & Bentler, 1994) was used 
initially, as this estimator has been used most frequently with 
AATI-TA scores.
The results of the confirmatory factor analyses are 
reported in Table 3 and Table 4. As can be seen, the 6-factor 
model displayed excellent fit based on all four indicators. 
When the 3-factor model was run, it did not converge. The 2-
factor model yielded poor fit across all indicators. Given the 
lack of convergence for the 3-factor model, all three models 
were rerun using both MLR, a robust estimator in Mplus that 
uses the Yuan-Bentler test statistic, and the robust weighted 
least squares estimator, which is recommended for ordinal 
data. These results are also reported in Table 3. Based on 
the MLR estimator, the 6-factor model had excellent fit and 
the 3-factor and 2-factor models had poor fit. The WLSMV 
estimator indicated excellent fit for the 6-factor model, good 
fit for the 3-factor model, and poor fit for the 2-factor model. 
In sum, the results all provided strong support for the 6-factor 
theoretical model. Omega estimates for AATI-TA scores 
based on the factor coefficients from the MLR estimator were 
.77 or higher (see Table 1). 
Correlations between the six AATI-TA subscales and 
Positivity scores are reported in Table 2, providing concurrent 
Table 2. Correlation matrix for Adolescent Time Inventory-
Time Attitude and P-Scale
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Past Positive –.83 .53 –.54 .36 –.37
2. Past Negative –.73 –.45 .64 –.38 .49
3. Present Positive .45 –.34 –.94 .71 –.62
4. Present Negative –.47 .58 –.78 –.69 .71
5. Future Positive .31 –.29 .66 –.57 –.83
6. Future Negative –.31 .39 –.51 .58 –.69
7. Positivitya .43 –.39 .74 –.71 .73 –.67
Note. Correlations below the diagonal are for the manifest variables 
and above the diagonal are for latent variables. All correlations are 
significant at the .001 level.
aThe Positivity score was based on seven of the eight items.
Table 3. Fit indices for the AATI-TA Scores derived from confirmatory factor analyses
Model χ2 df CFI TLI RMSEA
90% CI for 
RMSEA SRMR
MLM Estimator
1. 6-Factor (theorized) 310.08* 237 .970 .965 .043 .028–.055 .043
2. 3-Factor (time periods)a 664.32* 251 .813 .794 .099 .090–.108 .072
3. 2-Factor (valence) 1065.54* 251 .665 .632 .139 .130–.147 .121
MLR Estimator
1. 6-Factor (theorized) 317.45* 237 .964 .958 .045 .031–.057 .043
2. 3-Factor (time periods) 664.32* 251 .813 .794 .099 .090–.108 .072
3. 2-Factor (valence) 1037.62* 251 .644 .608 .136 .128–.145 .121
WLSMV Estimator
1. 6-Factor (theorized) 356.94* 237 .983 .980 .053 .041–.064 –
2. 3-Factor (time periods) 814.64* 251 .919 .911 .111 .103–.120 –
3. 2-Factor (valence) 1591.25* 251 .807 .787 .171 .163–.179 –
Note. AATI-TA = Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory-Time Attitude; CFI = Comparative Fit Index; TLI = Tucker-Lewis Index; RMSEA = 
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation; CI = Confidence Interval; SRMR = Standardized Root Mean Square Residual.
aModel did not converge with the Satorra-Bentler robust errors (MLM) and was run with the Huber/Pseudo ML/sandwich corrections (MLR).
* p < .001.
Measuring time attitudes in Slovenia
94
validity support. As hypothesized, all of the correlations were 
statistically significant, and ranged in size from moderate to 
large. Correlations with present and future subscales were also 
substantially larger than correlations with past subscales.
Discussion
The goal of this study was to develop a Slovenian version 
of AATI-TA yielding reliable and valid scores. The results 
provide psychometric evidence confirming the theoretical 
model of the measured construct and supporting the use 
of the ATI-TA as a measure of time attitudes in Slovenian 
adolescents. Specifically, the results show that scores on a 
Slovenian version of AATI-TA with 24 items are internally 
consistent, structurally valid, and associated in theoretically 
congruent ways with scores on the P-scale. The findings of 
this study provide a basis for being able to examine time 
attitudes and time attitude correlates in Slovenia. 
The introduction of the ZTPI (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999) 
to the literature resulted in a substantial increase in time 
perspective studies, with the ZTPI as the primary research 
instrument. Since 1999, the ZTPI has been translated into 
multiple languages and used in more than 20 countries 
(Sircova et al., 2014, 2015). Unfortunately, ZTPI scores have 
not yielded adequate fit in many countries (Sircova et al., 
2014). Indeed, Worrell et al. (2016) reported low internal 
consistency estimates for scores on four of the five ZTPI 
(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999) subscales and poor structural fit 
for ZTPI scores in Slovenia. Thus, the supportive results for 
AATI-TA scores provide another instrument to use in this 
country. The strong validity evidence for AATI-TA scores in 
this study is in keeping with findings in several other non-
English speaking countries, including China, Germany, and 
Japan. Moreover, unlike results from Albania, Italy, and 
Turkey, scores on both future subscales are working well, 
which will allow for the examination of profiles based on the 
six subscales.
Is there a compelling rationale for looking at time 
constructs? There are several studies that suggest that these 
constructs are quite important in both adolescents and 
adults. Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) reported meaningful 
correlations between time perspective subscales and several 
psychological constructs, including aggression, depression, 
emotional stability, ego control, and trait anxiety, among 
other constructs. Meaningful associations have also been 
found with variables related to educational achievement and 
psychological well being in studies in Germany, New Zealand, 
the United Kingdom, and the United States (Alansari et al., 
2013; Buhl & Lindner, 2009; McKay et al., 2016; Worrell & 
Mello, 2009). 
In addition to the correlational findings, as reported in 
the Introduction, recent person-centred analyses have also 
demonstrated substantial associations between time attitude 
and time perspective profiles and indicators of well being 
(Alansari et al., 2013; Andretta et al., 2014; Cole et al., 2017; 
McKay et al., 2016). Importantly, in a longitudinal study, 
Wells, Morgan, Worrell, Sumnall, and McKay (2016) showed 
that adolescents who started and remained in positive profiles 
were less likely to use alcohol and had healthier attitudes 
towards alcohol, whereas those who transitioned to negative 
profiles reported more unhealthy drinking behaviors. 
These findings suggest that time constructs may be useful 
to understand in terms of assessing probability of risky 
behaviour and in developing interventions. 
Limitations and conclusion
This study also had several limitations. The first is the 
small sample size, which was also limited to adolescents and 
young adults. Although the results are supportive, it will be 
important to examine AATI-TA scores in a large and more 
representative sample of Slovenian adolescents and adults. 
Attention will also need to be paid to different regions of the 
country, SES, levels of academic achievement, and person-
ality constructs to see if these variables interact with time 
attitudes. Another limitation is the use of only one scale to 
examine convergent validity. Although the P-scale has several 
items related to the future (e.g., “I have great faith in the 
future”), it is not considered a measure of time perspective, 
and future studies should examine more common time 
constructs such as consideration of future consequences, 
hope, and optimism to provide additional evidence of 
criterion-related validity. Despite the shortcomings due to the 
limitations of the initial sample, we conclude that findings of 
this study provide additional support for the generalizability 
of AATI-TA scores, which have the potential to be used in the 
Slovenian context as a measure of time attitudes.
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(item from ATTI-TA)
Past Positive .71
(i6) 
.83
(i16)
.78
(i19) 
.79
(i24)
Past Negative  .77
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Present Positive .84
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(v12)
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(i2)
.80 
(i15)
.79
(i18)
.75
(i23)
Future Positive .81 
(i1)
.86 
(i5)
.86
(i9)
.87
(i14)
Future Negative .67 
(i3)
.58 
(i7)
.81
(i17)
.62
(i20)
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Appendix
Table 5. The 24-item Slovenian version of the AATI-TA
Pri vsaki trditvi izberi samo en odgovor. nikakor se ne strinjam
ne strinjam 
se nevtralen se strinjam
popolnoma 
se strinjam
1. Veselim se svoje prihodnosti.
2. S svojim življenjem trenutno nisem zadovoljen.
3. Dvomim, da bom kaj naredil iz sebe.
4. Zadovoljen sem s svojim trenutnim življenjem.
5. Moja prihodnost me radosti. 
6. Na svoje odraščanje imam lepe spomine.
7. Mislim, da v svojem nadaljnjem razvoju ne bom veliko 
pridobil. 
8. Nisem zadovoljen s svojo preteklostjo.
9. Razveselim se ob misli na svojo prihodnost.
10. Zadovoljen sem s svojo sedanjostjo.
11. Moja preteklost me žalosti. 
12. Na splošno sem zadovoljen s tem, kar trenutno počnem.
13. Želim si, da ne bi imel take preteklosti, kot sem jo imel.
14. Moja prihodnost me navdušuje.
15. S svojo sedanjostjo nisem zadovoljen. 
16. Na svojo preteklost imam lepe spomine.
17. Ne maram razmišljati o svoji prihodnosti.
18. V svojem sedanjem življenju nisem srečen. 
19. Rad razmišljam o svoji preteklosti, saj je bil to zame zelo 
srečen čas. 
20. Razmišljanje o prihodnosti je nesmiselno.
21. Na splošno sem v tem trenutku srečen v svojem življenju. 
22. Na svojo preteklost imam neprijetne spomine.
23. Skrbi me moje trenutno življenje.
24. Moja preteklost je polna lepih spominov. 
Excluded items from the original scale: 
(3) Na svoje otroštvo imam zelo lepe spomine.
(6) Moja preteklost je čas v mojem življenju, ki ga bi rad pozabil.
(8) Imam slabe občutke glede svoje trenutne situacije.
(11) Zadovoljen sem s svojo sedanjostjo.
(16) Razmišljanje o moji prihodnosti me žalosti.
(28) Pozitivno me vznemirja misel na mojo prihodnost.
Prispelo/Received: 9. 5. 2017
Sprejeto/Accepted: 26. 10. 2017
Measuring time attitudes in Slovenia