7DOI: 10.4312/as.2023.11.3.7-14
Introduction: Humanism, Post-Humanism and 
Transhumanism in the Transcultural Context of 
Europe and Asia
Jana S. ROŠKER
Chief editor of Asian Studies
This issue of Asian Studies delves into the challenges inherent to humanity and 
the human condition. Over the course of centuries, these challenges have laid 
the groundwork for conceptual frameworks commonly referred to as humanism, 
which have undergone development within a multitude of cultural contexts. Nu-
merous analyses and critiques of these frameworks can be found in many pa-
pers contained in this issue, especially regarding the dynamics between humans 
and non-humans. These discussions have arisen from various regions around the 
globe, often labeled as post-humanism and transhumanism, among others.
Humanism is often described as a discourse based on the idea that the human 
being is the measure of all things, often referring to the saying of the pre-Socratic 
Protagoras, known in philosophy as the homo mensura thesis. But is the human 
being really the measure of all things? Even if this were once true, it is certainly 
no longer the case today, or only to a very limited extent. We live in an era of neo-
liberal economic monoculture in which most of our activities, even if they belong 
to the realm of pure artistic or theoretical creativity, are evaluated on the basis 
of the financial criterion of profit, which is fast becoming the most important 
and almost the only standard of social justification (Rugelj 2021, 116). As the 
Italian philosopher and writer Nuccio Ordine points out (see Šček 2021, 3), the 
fundamental problem of the 21st century is a humanistic one—we are trying to 
get rid of man! And as a counterbalance to a world without man, Ordine offers 
an ancient prescription: “Not less, more humanity will save the world” (ibid.). But 
a world without human beings, guided by an entrepreneurial and anti-humanist 
ideology, is also reflected in the contemporary education system, which is the only 
one that could offer the younger generation (those on whom this world is actually 
supposed to be based) not only knowledge, but also qualitative insight into the 
meaning of freedom and autonomy. But of course the aim of teaching and study 
programs is not to create free people, but to “sell degrees to customers who buy 
degrees” (ibid.). The logic of enterprise does not produce cultured citizens, but 
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8 Jana S. ROŠKER: Introduction
professional experts for the labor market” (ibid., 5). The entrepreneurial logic does 
not need historical memory, nor intellectual exchanges that go beyond the narrow 
confines of national and utilitarian economic interests and therefore make a per-
son truly human. But it is precisely the loss of memory and of the possibility of 
intercultural dialogues that is a dangerous phenomenon, which sooner or later—
unless we humans decide otherwise—will deal humanism a final, fatal blow. It is 
no coincidence, therefore, that the greatest contribution of Renaissance human-
ism was precisely to rescue Europe’s ancient past from oblivion and to integrate it 
into the foundations of the new age and modernity.
However, this issue starts from the premise that the traditional European concept 
of humanism is outdated in its present form and can therefore no longer serve as 
the conceptual basis of modern, technologically and socially highly differentiated 
and globalized societies. At the threshold of the third millennium, the related 
idea of the autonomous subject, which took shape in 17th-century Europe in the 
development of Enlightenment thought, has often been questioned because it 
was based on the notion of an abstract, isolated, supposedly self-sufficient indi-
vidual self that was posited in an unbearable anthropocentric position, conquer-
ing and exploiting both non-human beings and nature as such. It has also often 
been pointed out (see, e.g., Hohmann 2021) that the subject-object distinction 
has functioned both as an organizing principle and as a clear separation since 
the Enlightenment. In today’s complex and interconnected world, entities must 
therefore be seen as entangled and intra-active. There is no subject versus object, 
but rather alliances that shift, merge, and are unstable, and whose agency is sub-
ject to constant change (ibid., 12). In this context, many contemporary theorists 
(e.g. Demenchonok 2009) also problematize the idea of the supposed universality 
of human rights, which was based on the Enlightenment conceptualization of 
the subject based on the notion of universal necessity. Hence, in this outdated 
form, the conceptualization of the human rights can no longer serve as a suitable 
discourse that can provide an axiological framework for human action and the 
meaning of human existence.
Human rights, of course, remain a crucial concept that defines humanity. Howev-
er, it is important to acknowledge that the current framework of human rights is 
limited in its scope, as it is still rooted in a Eurocentric and post-colonial axiolog-
ical framework. This framework provides normative standards for evaluating hu-
manism and human beings that do not necessarily reflect the diversity of human 
experiences. Thus, it is imperative to broaden and expand the concept of human 
rights to encompass a wider range of human experiences that go beyond the ab-
stract and isolated individual. This expanded framework should also recognize 
the importance of communities, relationships, and attitudes towards non-human 
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9Asian Studies XI (XXVII), 3 (2023), pp. 7–14
beings. In essence, the ethics and axiology that underlie the contemporary idea of 
human rights need to be re-examined, expanded, and modified. 
It is important to clarify that broadening and expanding the concept of human 
rights does not suggest that we should neglect or overlook the plight of any human 
being, including the most isolated, lonely and marginalized political prisoners, or 
those living in unjust and unequal conditions that undermine their fundamental 
human rights. Every person’s life is priceless, and it is crucial to persist in advocat-
ing for human rights while remaining mindful of the fundamental significance of 
upholding the dignity and well-being of all individuals.
On the other hand, we must not forget on this way that the ideas of subjectivity 
and humanism belong to the central axiological foundations of modernization 
and represent an important part of the European heritage of ideas, on which the 
spiritual, legal and ideological paradigms of modern social systems are still based.
There is therefore a danger that even those aspects of humanism, autonomy 
and the free subject which have proved their absolutely positive and progressive 
charge in the course of historical developments will be drowned in the flood of 
utilitarian neoliberal discourses, which, because of the increasing diffusion of 
the concept of the subject, all the more easily put the material laws of market 
developments before the integrity and dignity of the human being as an indi-
vidual who, by virtue of its being, is embedded in a social community and in his 
natural environment (Dirlik 2003, 276‒77). Both humanism and the autonomy 
of the subject on which it is based are axiological preconditions for the pres-
ervation, enhancement and development of egalitarian social systems based on 
a balance between humanity and nature (Nelson 2023, 40). Indeed, egalitarian 
social systems based on a structure of social justice and ecological awareness are 
the fundamental prerequisites that enable this kind of integrity and quality of 
human life (Böhme 2008, 22‒26). Therefore, the concepts that maintain and 
develop such integrity and quality need to be revitalized, updated and adapted 
to the needs of our times (Lee 2014, 7). In today’s globalized world, they need 
to be placed in a fruitful relational, dialogical and dialectical relationship with 
similar and related heritages of non-European cultures (e.g. Sernelj 2014; Chai 
2023). This relation, however, reveals the power inequalities that underlie at-
tempts to include culturally marginalized bodies of thought within established 
disciplines (Burik 2023) and raises issues relevant to the globalization of knowl-
edge. In this context, this issue focuses on the exploration of Chinese (and partly 
also on Japanese and Vietnamese) culture and philosophy.
The issue is ordered into four sections. It opens with a section elaborating on 
digital technology and artificial intelligence in transcultural, Chinese-Western 
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10 Jana S. ROŠKER: Introduction
perspective. In the first contribution, Paul D’Ambrosio writes about “AI Ethics 
Beyond the Anglo-Analytic Approach: Humanistic Contributions from Chi-
nese Philosophy”. The author argues that classical Chinese philosophy provides 
valuable insights for addressing the human-centered challenges in AI. Instead of 
advocating for mathematical solutions or conceptualizing individuals, emotions, 
agency, and ethics in rigid and mechanistic terms, Chinese philosophy empha-
sizes the concepts of transformation, interconnectedness, and interdependent 
growth. By programming and utilizing AI in ways that do not oversimplify the 
complexities and conflicts of the world, we can leverage it as a tool to compre-
hend and navigate this complexity—an approach rooted in humanistic values. 
In this regard, Chinese philosophy can serve as a valuable and collaborative ally. 
The second paper in this section is Jana S. Rošker’s “Dissolution of the Self: 
Digital Technology, Privacy and Intimacy in Europe and the Sinophone Re-
gion”. Her article investigates the correlation between digital technology and 
the concepts of privacy and intimacy in both Europe and the East Asian region, 
with specific attention given to the evolving nature and understanding of hu-
man personhood. 
The second section of this issue delves into the diverse connections between 
human and non-human entities. It comprises four papers, starting with a con-
tribution by Hans-Georg Moeller titled “Early Confucian ‘Human Supremacy’ 
and Its Daoist Critique”. Moeller shows how and why numerous Daoist works, 
particularly the Zhuangzi, contain numerous narratives that embody a Daoist per-
spective challenging the notion of “humanist supremacy” and, more specifically, 
its implications in sociopolitical and moral contexts. The paper clearly shows that 
this Daoist anti-humanism is part of a broader endeavor aimed at fostering a 
state of human tranquility and well-being, prioritizing therapeutic aspects over 
ideological ones.
In the next paper titled “The Impact of China’s Biopolitical Approach to Cov-
id-19 on Pets”, Thomas William Whyke, Joaquin Lopez Mugica, Sadia Jamil and 
Aiqing Wang utilize the concepts of biopower and uses and gratifications theory 
to analyze the treatment of pets in China during the COVID-19 pandemic. The 
research focuses on a specific incident of a COVID-19 corgi killing carried out by 
a health worker in Shanghai and examines its reception on social media platforms. 
The findings indicate that the strong negative response on Weibo towards the 
corgi killing can be attributed to the influence of biopower, which prioritizes hu-
man life over animal welfare within China’s COVID-19 approach. Consequently, 
social media has played a crucial role in empowering animal advocates and involv-
ing them in the emergency management of pets.
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11Asian Studies XI (XXVII), 3 (2023), pp. 7–14
This paper is followed by Gloria Luque-Moya’s article “Toward a Harmonic Re-
lationship between Humans and Nature: A Humanist Reinterpretation of Ear-
ly Confucian Philosophy”. In response to the pressing environmental crisis, the 
author puts forth a proposal to revive early Confucian philosophy as a means 
to cultivate a more desirable approach to our interaction with the environment. 
Early Confucianism embraces a humanistic perspective that advocates for a har-
monious relationship between humans and nature. Consequently, this article aims 
to delineate a unique outlook on nature and the role of humans that is evident in 
early Confucianism, with the intention of reevaluating and addressing our present 
ecological concerns.
The subsequent paper is titled “Why the Chinese Tradition Had No Concept of 
“Barbarian”: The Mercurial Nature of the Human and Non-Human in Chinese 
Metaphysics”. It’s author is Xiang Shuchen, who contends that Chinese meta-
physical thought, in contrast to the ancient Greek tradition, is rooted in a pro-
cess-oriented paradigm that highlights the interconnectedness of all “things” with 
their ever-changing environment. A significant consequence of this perspective 
is that the distinction between the human and non-human realms is much more 
fluid. According to the Confucian viewpoint, an individual only truly embod-
ies their humanity through the process of acculturation, wherein one’s growth is 
shaped by participation in public symbolic practices. This transformative journey 
molds individuals into socially-oriented beings who consider the needs of others. 
Unlike the Greek tradition, which distinguished between the civilized and the 
barbarian, the Chinese tradition does not apply the concept of the “barbarian” due 
to its recognition of the continuous and evolving nature of humanness, and the 
importance of acculturation. 
The fourth section of this issue deals with political theory and ethics in the con-
text of humanism, post-humanism and transhumanism in China. It opens with 
Richard Stone’s article “The Politics of Pure Experience: Individual and State in 
An Inquiry into the Good”. The author explores the political implications inherent 
in Nishida Kitaro’s theory of pure experience as presented in An Inquiry into the 
Good. His analysis is a response to the diverse and contrasting claims made about 
the political meaning and risks associated with Nishida’s early philosophy. The 
author contends that while it is prudent to approach such claims with caution and 
consideration, a balanced evaluation reveals that Nishida’s early philosophy was 
essentially apolitical. Nevertheless, Stone goes on to argue that being apolitical 
does not imply that Nishida’s work lacks political consequences. On the contrary, 
the defining feature of Nishida’s early political philosophy is its ability to enable 
readers to transcend political issues.
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12 Jana S. ROŠKER: Introduction
This paper is followed by Maja Maria Kosec’s contribution, titled “Humanization 
of Chinese Religion: From Heaven (tian 天) to Ritual (li 礼) in Xu Fuguan and 
Li Zehou”. This article offers a critical comparison between the interpretations 
of Li Zehou and Xu Fuguan regarding the emergence of new religious and moral 
concepts and beliefs during the period spanning from the Shang to the Western 
Zhou dynasty. The author elucidates the factors underlying the significant diver-
gences in their approaches and demonstrates that these disparities primarily stem 
from fundamental differences in Li’s and Xu’s respective methodologies. Further-
more, the author contends that these divergences underscore the significance of 
comprehending diverse methodological approaches, as they facilitate a more pro-
found and intricate comprehension of the process of humanization within Chi-
nese religion.
The next paper, “A Humanist Reading of Wang Chong’s Defence of Divination”, 
was written by Mark Kevin Cabural. The author presents a fresh perspective on 
the ideas of Wang Chong by incorporating Chung-Ying Cheng’s understanding 
of inclusive or intrinsic humanism. Specifically, the author highlights how this 
form of humanism is evident in Wang Chong’s advocacy for divination. Further-
more, the author delves into the significance of onto-cosmological humility in 
divination and inclusive humanism, while also examining how this disposition or 
virtue is reflected in contemporary scientific literature. By proposing a human-
ist interpretation of Wang Chong’s defence of divination, the author not only 
suggests a novel perspective but also asserts that onto-cosmological humility can 
serve as a guiding principle for responsible actions and personal transformation. 
This extends to the way humans interact with other beings and the universe as a 
whole.
The last section of this issue is titled “Comparative Approaches” and it comprises 
two contributions. The first one is titled “Marxist Anthropology Through the 
Lens of Philosophy of Language: Engels, Li Zehou and Tran Duc Thao on the 
Origin of Humankind and Human Language” and was written by Yang Xiaobo. 
The author highlights the Marxist perspective that distinguishes human beings 
from animals based on their ability to create and utilize tools, which is closely 
connected to the development of language and consciousness. Within Marxist 
anthropology, there is an effort to trace the origin of humanity by examining the 
emergence of tools, language, and consciousness. This approach encompasses a 
philosophical dimension concerning language. By exploring and comparing the 
hypotheses of Engels, Li Zehou, and the Vietnamese scholar Tran Duc Thao 
regarding the origins of humankind and human language, Yang’s article aims to 
offer fresh insights into Marxist anthropology from the perspective of the philos-
ophy of language. 
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13Asian Studies XI (XXVII), 3 (2023), pp. 7–14
This special issue concludes with Mateusz Janik’s article “On Small and Large 
Vessels: Anthropological Difference According to Matteo Ricci and Zhu Xi”, in 
which the author undertakes a comparative analysis of Song Neo-Confucian and 
late Ming Jesuit perspectives regarding the exceptional nature of human beings 
and the involvement of non-human entities in shaping the discursive foundations 
of anthropological distinctions. The focus lies on the arguments put forth by Zhu 
Xi and Matteo Ricci, both advocating for the notion of human exceptionalism. 
The paper is grounded in a historical context, considering the unique encounter 
between Jesuit missionaries and the Confucian tradition in China. This encounter 
brought together the scholastic tradition, influenced by Aristotle’s philosophy, and 
Confucian teachings. Across Chinese and Western philosophical discourses, the 
concept of the non-human other has played a significant role in defining the very 
essence of humanity. 
In conclusion, this special issue on Humanism, Post-Humanism, and Transhuman-
ism in Transcultural Perspective: Asian and European Paradigms has offered a di-
verse and comprehensive exploration of these complex philosophical concepts. 
Through the lens of transcultural perspectives, the contributors have delved into 
the intersections and divergences between Asian and European paradigms. As we 
have seen, the articles presented in this special issue have shed light on various 
aspects, ranging from the historical development of humanistic thought to the 
ethical implications of post-humanist and transhumanist ideas. By examining the 
works of prominent thinkers from different cultural backgrounds, this special is-
sue has provided a platform for critical analysis, fostering a deeper understanding 
of the multifaceted nature of humanism and its evolution into post-humanist and 
transhumanist discourses.
Moreover, this special issue has underscored the importance of considering cul-
tural diversity and contextual factors when engaging with these philosophical 
frameworks. It has demonstrated the rich tapestry of ideas that emerge when 
transcultural perspectives are taken into account, allowing for a more nuanced and 
inclusive approach to the study of humanism, post-humanism, and transhuman-
ism. By bringing together Asian and European paradigms, this special issue has 
contributed to the ongoing dialogue on the nature of humanity, the boundaries of 
human potential, and the ethical implications of emerging technologies. It is our 
hope that the insights gained from this collection of articles will inspire further 
research, fostering cross-cultural understanding and interdisciplinary collabora-
tion in the realm of humanistic studies.
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14 Jana S. ROŠKER: Introduction
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